Don – Page 2 – Discover-Nature

Rodents

Rodentia are the largest order of mammals in the world, encompassing over 40% of mammal species. A rodent is characterized by having two pairs of large front teeth, one pair in each of the upper and lower jaws. These are called incisors and are used for gnawing vegetation. They have no canine teeth, leaving a large gap between the four front teeth and their molars in the back of the mouth. Rodents can be found in all types of habitat everywhere in the world except Antarctica, New Zealand and a few oceanic islands.

Capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, use calls to warn others of danger and to find their young including purring, barking, cackling, whistling, whining, grunting, and chattering.

^{Capybara by Dick Culbert, Gibsons, B.C. Canada, May 2014}

The largest rodent is the capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, growing up to 140 pounds. But a majority of species are small animals, under 4 ounces, with bulky bodies, short limbs, and long tails. Compared to their overall size, the body’s surface area is large and contributes to a greater loss of heat than larger animals. To combat this, rodents create more body heat by being constantly active. They consume large quantities of food to meet high energy needs. Many species are active year-round, coming out during early morning and late evening hours to feed. Animals living in habitats with extreme temperatures may hibernate to escape the cold or estivate to escape the heat. These species conserve energy by adjusting their body temperatures to within a few degrees of the air temperature and slow other bodily functions, requiring less food and more rest.

North American beaver, Castor canadensis, hone their upper teeth into efficient biting tools and defensive weaponry.

North American beaver, *Castor canadensis,* by Steve, Washington D.C., Jul 2008

Incisors grow constantly their entire lives. The front surface is protected by a hard enamel shell. The back surface of the upper pair is soft and easily wears away from the constant rubbing of the lower teeth as vegetation is bitten off and chewed. This creates a chisel like edge on the top teeth that is an excellent cutting surface. Teeth are used to gnaw vegetation, dig burrows, and for defense, if attacked. If an animal does not gnaw enough vegetation, the growth rate of the teeth becomes greater than what is being worn away and health problems can develop leading to the inability to eat. This most often occurs in captive animals who are not provided with sufficient quantities of harder vegetation.

Fox squirrels, Sciurus niger, scamper up tree trunks, along branches, and are able to leap to nearby trees, in addition to being fast on the ground and good swimmers.

^{Fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, by Karly Tuminello, Jul 2020}

Food is mainly seeds, leaves, fruit and small invertebrates or insects. A internal structure called a caecum contains bacteria that assists in breaking down plant material into digestible form. Several rodents have eyes that protrude in a half dome from their head allowing them to see both ahead and behind. This wide field of vision allows the animal to easily detect predators. Their daytime eyesight is poor, but they can detect ultra-violet light, allowing excellent vision during twilight hours when they are most often active. Most rodents live in large social groups, but forage individually, using a wide variety of alarm calls to keep others informed when danger is near.

Naked mole-rats, Heterocephalus glaber, have strong jaws that use one-quarter of all the muscle tissue in their body.

^{Naked mole-rats, Heterocephalus glaber, by Roman Klementschitz, Wien, Dec 2003}

Humans often consider rodent species to be harmful pests. While they may carry bacteria and cause nuisance problems, they are also beneficial by eating weed seeds and insects, keeping populations of many pest species in check. Rodents are widely used in human culture as food, clothing, pets, and laboratory animals for research. Visit a museum or nature center to learn about the many fun facts of each family in this amazing group of animals.

Kangaroo rats, Dipodomys sp, hop to move around but can jump 6 to 9 feet, and they get all their water from the seeds they eat.

^{Kangaroo rat, Dipodomys, by U.S. Fish & Wildlife, Sep 2005}

Tornado

Springtime in the Midwestern United States brings with it everything from light to heavy showers, including tornados. In Illinois, we see an average of 54 tornados a year, with most of them occurring in the month of May. Tornados also occur in other parts of the world during springtime, including Europe, eastern and western China, South Africa, southern Brazil and both the east and west coasts of Australia, but not as frequently as in the U.S.

A majority of storm fronts move from southwest to northeast, which is a contributing factor in the Midwest to the formation of violent storms. There are three types of tornados. Non super-cell tornados are small, narrow, and last for only short periods of time, usually only a few minutes. Wind speeds are low, topping out near 80 mph, capable of causing only minor damage. Squall line tornados are generated by smaller thunderstorms traveling one after another forming periods of rain interspersed with calmer conditions. As the end of a squall line bends, small tornados may form with lower wind speeds, usually causing no damage. Super cell thunderstorms are the largest, most powerful storms that can generate tornados ranging from small to great in size and intensity.

^{Upper left: Thunderstorm during VORTEX2 by Sean Waugh, NOAA-NSSL Lower left: Funnel cloud approaching the ground by National Severe Storms Laboratory, NOAA Right: Supercell often associated with violent weather by National Severe Storms Laboratory, NOAA}

Rainstorms form when cool, dry air overlays a layer of warm, moist air. As the warm air rises to higher altitudes, where there is less air pressure, it expands and cools, losing its ability to hold moisture. As water condenses from the cooling air mass, water vapor floating on the air forms clouds. As more warm, moisture laden air moves into the system, the water vapor droplets become heavy enough to fall as rain. As rain falls, it cools the lower air layer, reducing the warm air flow until the rain stops.

^{Photomontage of the evolution of a tornado : Composite of eight images shot in two sequences as a tornado formed north of Minneola, Kansas on May 24, 2016, by Jason Weingart}

Thunderstorms form in the Midwest from warm, moist air moving in from the Gulf of Mexico and cool, dry air blowing in over the Rocky Mountains. A third source of air from the jet stream may wick away enough rain drops so that the lower air mass does not cool, and the warm air keeps feeding and intensifying a storm. As air moves in different directions and at different speeds, the whole storm will start to swirl, tending to pick up speed toward the center of the storm, eventually creating one or more funnels of rotating air.

Tornados are categorized based on the Enhanced Fujita scale from EF-0 to EF-5. This scale gives an estimate of wind speed and severity of damage inflicted. A little more than half of all tornados are found in the EF-0 range where wind speeds do not exceed 85 mph (137 kph) and damage is minor. Less than 1% of all tornados are recorded in the EF-4 (winds 166-200 mph) and EF-5 (winds over 200 mph) ranges. Another recent discovery is that most of the more severe storms tend to produce multiple tornados rotating around each other. Occurrences of multiple small funnels are difficult to observe within a large and often opaque mass of water, wind, and debris. This discovery helps to explain damages where one house may be completely destroyed while the neighbor is almost untouched.

The afternoon is the most likely time of day for these conditions to exist, once the sun has had a chance to heat the earth and air masses in the lower altitudes. In the Midwest, most tornados occur between noon and 8:00pm. Weather services are constantly monitoring conditions to be able to identify when weather patterns exist that may result in the formation of a tornado. Outside warning sirens are used by many municipalities to let people know that dangerous conditions are imminent. If you are hearing a warning siren, move inside and stay away from windows. Tune into radio, television, or internet resources to obtain the most up-to-date information for your area.

Nature Journaling

Creating a nature journal is a fun activity providing you with opportunities to observe and record what is happening in the natural world around you. You can pick any subject – a broad look at all of the plants and animals you see on a prairie walk, or a more focused look at the activities of a single bee on a rose blossom. You can record observations in any habitat, inside or outside, at any time of the year, and in any type of weather.

The tools to begin with are simple. A notebook to record your observations. Many journalers prefer unlined, blank pages allowing you to use any portion of the page. A writing instrument, whether pen pr pencil, or keyboard if your notebook is electronic. Time to observe, make a sketch, write out notes, and enjoy the process. More tools can be added as you go along including color pencils/pens/paints, a hand lens, a ruler, binoculars, field guides, a camera, and an array of other tools you will discover.

There are as many techniques as there are tools. A few of the more popular styles are highlighted in the following examples. One method is contained in A Trail Through Leaves by Hannah Hinchman. Her journal is filled with simple sketches, many with a brief description. She has added watercolors to some of her sketches and references to familiar objects to enhance the descriptions.

Many journalers record the natural changes around their own homes throughout the year. Nature On The Doorstep, by Angela E. Douglas, is a series of letters. The author has just moved to New England from Great Britain and makes wonderful comparisons and contrasts of the natural world between the two locales. The Wild Remedy, by Emma Mitchell, is a monthly diary with hand-drawn illustrations and photographs. Letters From Eden, by Julie Zickefoose, is illustrated with hand sketches and watercolors. The Country Diary Of An Edwardian Lady, by Edith Holden, is a reproduction of her original journal that she wrote in 1906 and contains many watercolor paintings. She also includes a list of species important to her writings in the final pages.

Some journalers use electronic media to record and share their observations. Posting a photo essay on Twitter or writing a blog that could be kept as private or shared with subscribers or the public are two common methods. Two examples that I recommend are Tuesdays In The Tallgrass by Cindy Crosby, and A Botanist’s Field Notes by Andrew Hipp.

Many books have been written about the art and science of nature journaling, with suggestions on methods including prose, poetry, scientific notation and illustration, watercolors, sketching, pen & pencil drawings, and coloring with pencils or markers. These books provide good information for starting a journaling project and stimulating your creativity with further ideas. Practice observing and recording details using one or more of these techniques will help you become a better naturalist and journaler. A few of my favorite reference books include:

Keeping A Nature Journal by Clare Walker Leslie
How To Keep A Naturalist’s Notebook by Susan Leigh Tomlinson
The Laws Guide To Nature Drawing and Journaling by John Muir Laws

A nature journal can be private or shared with others. If you are in the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum area, consider joining our group, the Nature Doodlers, to share your ideas. Many such groups exist, and directories such as one on the John Muir Laws website (https://johnmuirlaws.com/nature-journal-club/ ) may help you to find one in your area.

Please visit our new page Discover Nature Journaling for more ideas, as well as a quick start guide that you can print and take with you in the field.

Extinct & Endangered – pt.3

An endangered species is one that is likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or locally in a known range. In some instances, these species may be saved through habitat conservation, breeding assistance, and education. This final installment on Extinct & Endangered will take a look at three species in North America that have benefited greatly from such efforts.

The Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum, is the only venomous lizard native to the United States and is listed as near threatened. Their ranges are quite small, covering 700 to 3000 square feet. They spend most of their lives in underground burrows, and they are only regularly outside for a couple of hours each day during their mating season, from March to May. Gila monsters hunt small animals, and prey is eaten alive, head first. Venom is delivered through their saliva as the prey is chewed and acts to slow the prey’s reactions. While venom is not deadly to humans, it can cause swelling and severe pain.

^{Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum by Erin Donalson, Getty Images}

^{Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum by Shoemcfly, Getty Images}

Gila monsters pose no direct threat to humans, usually living in remote areas, but still have a fearsome reputation that contributes to illegal hunting of the species. They were the first venomous animal in the United States to get legal protection from being collected, killed, or sold. As development threatens areas where the Gila monster is found, conservationists are moving populations to preserves where there is minimal interactions with humans. Breeding numbers in the wild are still robust, although captive breeding efforts have been started in zoos across North America. Education and preservation of appropriate habitat has so far kept this species off the endangered lists.

The black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, is listed as endangered, but increasing in population. Their native range includes southern Canada and the northern United States, but habitat loss and disease have reduced populations to only a few hundred. They are a playful member of the weasel family, using several vocalizations for communication including barks, chattering, and chuckling. They are nocturnal and rarely seen in the daytime. Prairie dogs, hunted in underground burrows at night, are their exclusive food source.

^{Black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, portrait by Delecrouix, Getty Images Pro}

^{Black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, at prairie dog burrow by kahj19, Getty Images}

The species was declared extinct in the late 1960s until a dozen individuals were found in Wyoming in the early 1980s. Deliberate extermination of prairie dog colonies, because they are considered a nuisance species, has had a significant impact on black-footed ferret populations. Habitat protection and captive breeding programs have been successful at boosting population numbers. There are now about 300 black-footed ferrets living in Wyoming and other sites in the north central and southwestern United States where individuals have been released. Habitat loss and disease are still constant threats, and scientists estimate that about 3,000 individuals will be required to save the species from extinction.

The California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus, the largest bird in North America, formerly nested in caves in high cliff faces along the southern California coast until real estate development claimed all of their habitat. In the 1980s, as the last 34 birds were captured, the species was declared extinct in the wild.

^{California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus, tagged, in flight by OldFulica, Getty Images}

Condors are slow flyers, soaring in great circles, searching for carcasses of dead animals to eat. They eat until they are full, and can go about two weeks between meals. Juveniles may take several months to learn to fly and land gracefully, without crashing. Condors reach reproductive maturity at four to six years of age, and can live over fifty years. After mating, females lay only one egg, and mating may not take place every year.

^{California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus, Grand Canyon by Blewulis, Getty Images Pro}

Even with slow reproduction rates, efforts to expand the population by hand-rearing and re-introduction to unaffected habitat have resulted in close to 450 birds back in the wild in California, Utah, Arizona, and the Baja. Still listed as an endangered species, the California condor is making great progress in rebuilding its population.

^{California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus by DonArnold, Mar 2024}

^{Introduction to Extinct & Endangered at Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum by DonArnold, Mar 2024}

Extinct and endangered species can be found in every habitat and location worldwide. Many are being helped by direct action with hand-rearing and habitat protection. Indirect action through new laws, conservation support, and education has also had a positive effect. Many of these species are on display at various nature museums including the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum. Plan a visit soon to learn more.

Extinct & Endangered – pt.2

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) gathers data through research and field projects on all known species of plants and animals. They work to educate people on conserving nature and sustainably using natural resources. The IUCN publishes a document known as The Red List providing the conservation status of all species. There are nine possible levels including Least Concern, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered, Extinct in the Wild, Extinct, Data Deficient, and Not Evaluated.

An endangered species is one that is likely to become extinct in the near future, either world-wide or locally in a known range. Critically endangered species are at extreme risk of extinction in the immediate future. A species is vulnerable when its population and breeding numbers are at risk, but have a chance to improve. Several factors considered are the current population size, how fast the population has increased or decreased over a short period of time, whether breeding rates are high or low, and what threats exist from habitat loss, poaching, and invasive species.

^{Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

The Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis, spends northern hemisphere summers breeding on the Alaskan and western Canadian tundra. As the weather turns colder, they migrate to Argentina by flying east to the Atlantic Ocean, and then south. Although nests are built on open ground, they are difficult to find and study. Food includes berries, insects, and snails, but incubation and rearing habits have never been clearly identified. During migration in the mid-1800s, populations would darken the skies as tens of millions of birds followed the warmer weather. Eskimo curlews were hunted on both continents year-round. If a bird was wounded, the other flock members would circle back, becoming additional targets for hunters. Development cuts up large breeding areas to smaller sections reducing food sources and enabling predators to severely impact populations. The species is listed as critically endangered, although there has not been a confirmed sighting since 1963.

^{Proboscis Monkey, Nasalis larvatus, by Chris Smallwood, Jul 2013}

^{Proboscis Monkey, Nasalis larvatus, female with young by Martha de Jong-Lantink, Jun 2020}

The proboscis monkey, Nasalis larvatus, another endangered species, is found mostly in the mangrove forests in Borneo; it is one of the largest monkeys native to Asia. Living in swamps and lowland areas along rivers, they are excellent tree climbers and swimmers, having the ability to swim underwater for short distances. Their large noses, smaller in females and upturned in juveniles, are thought to make their calls louder and more attractive to the opposite sex. They communicate through a variety of calls to signal alarm and threat warnings, and to keep infants and group members close. Rapid loss of habitat to logging and oil palm plantations, plus hunting for their meat, considered a delicacy in some areas, have reduced populations by more than half in the last fifty years.

^{Whooping Crane, Grus americana, by Trish Gussler, May 2018; Whooping Crane, Grus americana, by Diana Robinson, Mar 2018; Whooping Crane, Grus americana, by Evangelio Gonzalez, Dec 2018}

The whooping crane, Grus americana, is one of only two crane species native to North America, and it remains on the list of endangered species although it may be starting a comeback. Birds build a nest on a slight rise in a marsh where one or two eggs are laid. Normally only one egg survives, and the juvenile stays with the parents for six to eight months. Populations were never large, but prior to European settlement, there were an estimated 10,000 birds. Hunting for meat and feathers, in addition to predation and habitat loss, drastically reduced population size from the mid 1800s to the early 1900s. Through several programs of captive breeding, wetland management, and extensive efforts to assist the juveniles in learning migration routes by following ultralight aircraft, populations have rebounded to about 600 today.

^{JSNM Extinct Endangered display; JSNM Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis; JSNM Proboscis monkey face, Nasalis larvatus; JSNM Proboscis monkey, Nasalis larvatus; all pictures by DonArnold, Feb 2024}

In the final blog on this topic, we will take a look at a few success stories – species that have recovered with populations that continue to get stronger. Many nature museums have information and extinct species on display to learn from. All of the above species, and more, can be found at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, so please stop by, or visit a local nature museum where you live.

Extinct & Endangered

Extinction of a species is the total loss of all individuals of that species. There are many reasons a species may become extinct including natural disaster, climate change, and human related causes. Other species still living in the world may be classified as endangered, those that are close to extinction throughout all of their range, or those making a comeback after being endangered.

A species’ habitat is vital to its existence and includes the environment it lives in and all of its components: shelter, food, water, and more. A species that is moving toward extinction needs its habitat protected and preserved if the population is to survive. How many species are endangered is a hard question to answer because we have not identified all of the species in the world. This blog will take a look at a few species that became extinct in the last century.

^{Heath Hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, @ Delaware Museum of Natural History by Jim, the Photographer, Jul 2013}

^{Heath Hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

The heath hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, is an extinct sub-species of the greater prairie chicken. These large birds from the grouse family lived along the east coast of North America from New Hampshire to northern Virginia in forests dominated by pine, grasses, and low shrubs. They were a popular meal for settlers. Poaching and overhunting reduced their numbers drastically, leaving only a small existing population on Martha’s Vineyard by 1870. Further losses resulted from predation by hawks and feral cats. The practice of not of not allowing natural fires to burn resulted in the accumulation of excessive undergrowth, and a 1916 wildfire decimated most of the remaining population. The last few birds died in 1932.

^{Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, @ Field Museum of Natural History by opacity, Mar 2014}

^{Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, @ Redpath Museum of Montreal by Hotel Kaesong, Jun 2020}

The Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, was one of only three parrots native to the United States. They liked old growth forest and swamp habitat along major rivers east of the Rocky Mountains. Parakeets nested in hollow trees and lived in large, noisy flocks of several hundred birds. Clearing forests and draining wetlands for agriculture and development reduced populations as habitat was removed. The last birds disappeared in the early 1900s, possibly from poultry disease.

^{Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

^{Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, @ Cleveland Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

Passenger pigeons, Ectopistes migratorius, lived in large flocks east of the rocky Mountains in North America and were especially abundant in the Great Lakes area. At one time, their estimated population was five billion. They were fast flyers, able to reach 60 mph and fed on mast, fruits, and invertebrates. Living in large flocks made them easy to hunt, and pigeon meat was good eating. Habitat loss combined with hunting reduced populations slowly in the early 1800s and quickly toward the end of that era. The last bird died in 1914 at the Cincinnati Zoo.

Passenger pigeons played a significant role the development of eastern North American forests. Large flocks roosted together during thunderstorms and at night. Hundreds of birds could be found in one tree, where smaller branches, especially in the forest canopy, would easily snap from the birds’ combined weight. This opened up large holes in the canopy, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor and promote the growth of sun-loving species such as chestnut, pine, hemlock, and oak species. As flocks migrated from one area to another, forest biodiversity was positively impacted.

^{Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum images by DonArnold, Feb 2024: Carolina parakeet, heath hen, passenger pigeons female & male}

In the next blog, we will learn about endangered species. Many nature museums have information and extinct species to learn from. All of the above species, and more, are on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, so please stop by, or visit a local nature museum where you live.

Fossils of Illinois – part 2

Ocean habitats, including the shallow seas that covered the Midwest during the Cambrian Period, have given us many fossils. The following species are all found in Illinois fossil records, and all have forms still alive today. Bryozoans live in colonies with lacy, branching, or screw-shaped skeletons peppered with many tiny holes in which the animals reside. Brachiopods attach to any surface by a fleshy appendage extended from their hard shells and were abundant in ages past compared to present day. Snails are plentiful in the fossil records along the banks of all major rivers. Cephalopods including squid, octopus, and cuttlefish, were shelled animals in their ancient forms. They could grow to nineteen feet, but all of the shelled forms are now extinct. Pelecypods, also known as bivalves, include mussels, clams, oysters, and scallops, and are found in the oldest rocks in the Midwest.

^{Perca obtusa at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Cephalopod, Placenticeras placenta, Texas at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Priscacara liops at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Insect fossils are rare, although more than 100 species have been found from the Pennsylvanian period in coal deposits of Illinois. Many species lived in swampy areas at the edge of ancient seas. Most fossils, often found in ironstone, a sedimentary rock, are of now extinct species. Some of these species include assassin bugs, katydids, millipedes, and centipedes. One such extinct insect was the giant millipede, Arthropleura, estimated to be eight-and-a-half feet in length. Dragonflies, damselflies, and cockroaches in both ancient and present-day forms have been identified.

^{Fossil Crab Carapace, Zanthopsis vulgaris, Pittsburgh Bluffs Formation, Oregon at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Nautilus at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

*Icthyosaur Stenopterygius Quadriscisius* at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023

Vertebrate fossils found in the Illinois region from extinct species are mammoths and mastodons, plus animals still commonly occurring today including horses, deer, and humans. Smaller species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are all present in the fossil record of the Midwest. As you move further west, larger species from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages become common finds. These include dinosaurs, camels, and saber-toothed tigers.

^{Pennsylvanian Period stump, possible Sigillaria at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Pecopteris miltoni, Mazon Creek, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Tree bark fossil, Mazon Creek, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023

Plant species found in the fossil record are abundant. Many fast growing fern and tree species litter the coal deposits brought up from strip mining in Illinois. Giant scouring rushes and seed ferns, now all extinct, are relatives of today’s horsetail plants. Many of these were common ferns in ancient times and grew to heights of fifty feet or more.

^{Tully Monster, Tullimonstrum gregarium, at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

The Tully Monster, Tullimonstrum gregarium, was named the Illinois state fossil in 1989. It was a soft-bodied animal that lived during the Pennsylvanian Period, 300 to 315 million years ago. With a smooth, tapered body and large tail fins, it had an oval, segmented body that grew to about 12″ in length, and was at home in the shallow, tropical seas that covered this area. The first fossil was found in 1958, and no specimen of this animal has ever been found outside of Illinois.

You can view and study the Tully Monster and other fossil specimens at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, and many other representative specimens can be viewed in most natural history museums. While fossils have been well-studied over the past several decades, there are many facets of each specimen and the environments and habitats they lived in still to be discovered.

Gallery of fossils from upper left clockwise: Fossil variety at JSNM; Nothosaurus vertebra, Rudersdorf, Germany at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023; Fossil variety at JSNM; Pterosaur phyllurus ramphrhynicus, Jurassic period, at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023; Ptychocarpus unitus, Mazon Creek, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023; Fossil variety at JSNM;

Fossils of Illinois

Fossils, remnants of organisms that lived in the past, can be found worldwide. Located throughout Illinois in strip mines, rock quarries, and along cliffs, bluffs, and river banks, many fossils are found grouped together from a specific age in geologic time (see the sidebar below). Knowing the various groups of animals that lived during that age helps us to identify other remains found in the same area.

^{Fossil crustacean, Rauna angusta, Solenhofen, Germany at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Trilobyte, Armonia elongata at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

In order for a fossil to form, an organism that dies must be quickly covered with sediment or amber before decay or erosion sets in, or it is eaten by a scavenger. Soft tissues dissolve within hours of death, and they are rarely found in fossils. The harder parts of an animal or plant species such as bones, teeth, shells, and woody tissues may be covered quickly and preserved. Some fossils are formed by sediment covering the organism, then drying while parts of the organism slowly dissolve. This results in a mold which can be filled with more sediment that hardens to create a fossil. Other fossils are formed when insects damage a plant, which releases its sap, called amber, to heal the damage. Amber may trap and cover the insect, then dry and harden creating an insect fossil inside.

^{Diplomystus analis at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Decapod, Acanthochirus longipes, Bavaria, Germany at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Knightia alta at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Let’s investigate a few fossils found in the Midwest. During the Ordovician and Cambrian Periods, Illinois and much of the Midwest was covered with shallow seas. Many of the fossils found today are from sea creatures that lived on that ocean bottom. Foraminifera, excellent indicator species for finding oil, are one-celled organisms that live in coastal waters and river estuaries. They ingest sand and minerals and secrete a jellylike protoplasm that hardens into a shell, forming a chamber. As they grow, subsequent secretions add more chambers in different shapes and sizes including spherical, tubular, and spiral. Foraminifera anchor themselves to the bottom of the ocean and feed on food particles of algae, bacteria, and detritus flowing through the chambers in the water current.

^{Mioplosus at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Notogonius Oscuius at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Trilobyte, Phacops rana at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Sponges and corals may live singly or in colonies of hundreds of individuals. They are found anchored to the bottom of both saltwater and freshwater seas. Corals have a hard skeleton divided into many open chambers. Sponges have hard, dense skeletons that still allow water to flow freely through. Both organisms breathe by extracting oxygen and feed by filtering bacteria and detritus from water currents flowing around them. They also filter carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous from the current creating a healthier habitat for other aquatic organisms. In northern Illinois, fossils are commonly found from the Cambrian era.

^{Fossil Sea Urchin, Holectypus planatus, Texas at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Crinoids, Dichocrinus inornatus, Hampton Formation, Iowa at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Echinoderms, including star fish and sea urchins, can be found sparingly in the fossil record in Illinois. They have an external skeleton of calcium with tube-like feet extending below used to propel themselves over the ocean bottom or pry open shells of prey organisms. Blastoids, an echinoderm also known as a “sea bud,” with a mouth on top of a small round structure, are commonly found in river banks and bluffs. Crinoids, often called sea lilies, have several clustered discs with a long stem anchoring them to the ocean floor. After death, even as the stem dissolves, single discs are often preserved as fossils in limestone beds.

^{Diplomystus dentatus at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Phareodus testis at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil decapod, Paneus sp., Will County, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

We have numerous fossils on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, and many more can be found in other natural history museums. In my next blog we will continue to explore other types of fossils found in the Midwest.

^{Fossil Trilobyte, Flexicalymene retorsa at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Sea Turtles

Sea turtles live in every ocean environment around the world, nesting on tropical and subtropical beaches, and migrating long distances. They spend their entire lives at sea except when females come ashore to lay their eggs. They have been on earth for over 100 million years, surviving the period when most dinosaurs and other reptiles died out 65 million years ago.

^{Coral reef & hawksbill sea turtle by jakubgojda, Indian Ocean, Maldives}

Sea turtles are large, air-breathing reptiles with upper (carapace) and lower (plastron) shells. Six of the seven species are covered by hard scales called scutes. Although none have teeth, jaws are suited to each species specific diet. Sea turtles do not have ears, but there are eardrum openings covered by a flap of skin. Their sense of smell is excellent as is their underwater vision, although they are nearsighted when out of the water. Along with a streamlined body, they possess powerful legs and claws for swimming, diving, and catching food.

^{Green turtle eating seagrass by LauraDin, Getty Images}

^{Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, on coral reef by Artush, Alam, Egypt}

Sea turtles, along with manatees, are excellent caretakers of seagrass beds and coral reefs, habitats that are vital to the reproduction of fish, shellfish, and crustaceans. Seagrass, one of their favorite foods, grows faster and stronger with daily trimming from turtle munching. Coral beds, vulnerable to collapse and suffocation under mass quantities of sponges and small crustaceans, benefit from sea turtles that eat several hundred of these animals each day.

^{Olive ridley digging egg chamber by JHVEPhoto, Getty Images, Costa Rica}

^{Green sea turtle hatchlings by Penny Britt, Getty Images}

After reaching sexual maturity, which takes from 15 to 50 years, depending on the species, female sea turtles return every two to five years to the beach where they were born to lay their eggs. On average, they dig three to seven nests and place about 100 eggs in each. Baby sea turtles break out of their egg and instinctively flee for the lighter colored horizon where the ocean meets the beach. They spend several years in the open ocean feeding and growing before venturing into shallower waters to eat, mate, and reproduce. Only about one in a thousand babies will grow to be an adult. Most are prey for birds, crabs and fish, but many are killed by humans for food, medicines, and religious ceremonies. Nesting site habitat destruction and turtles caught as part of the fishing industry also play a part in population decline.

^{Jellyfish & jacks by melissaf84, Getty Images, Coral Sea; Whelks by Pack-Shot, Getty Images; Reef crab by JohnAndersonPhoto, Getty Images, Lembeh Strait, Indonesia; Posidonia seagrass meadow by Arnaud Abadie, Getty Images Signature, Mediterranean Sea}

Females lay all of their eggs on land, but nesting sites and the best feeding sites may be thousands of miles apart. Sea turtles are found throughout the world’s oceans following concentrations of jellyfish, sponges, and crustaceans found in coral reefs and seagrass beds. Leatherback females have been tracked making migrations of over 12,000 miles between nest sites and the best annual feeding grounds during non-breeding seasons.

Read facts on each species in the sidebar, shown below. Come to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum where we have loggerhead, hawksbill, and green sea turtles on display to learn more about these creatures and their hidden realms.

^{Pics 1&2: Green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, by DonArnold, JSNM 2023; Pics 3-6: Hawksbill sea turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, by DonArnold, JSNM 2023; Pic 7: Loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta, by DonArnold, JSNM 2023}

Sea turtle species…

There are seven species of sea turtles in the world. All are experiencing dwindling populations from various threats. Two are critically endangered: the hawksbill sea turtle and the Kemp’s ridley sea turtle. Two are endangered: the green sea turtle and the flatback sea turtle. Three are listed as threatened: the leatherback sea turtle, the olive ridley sea turtle, and the loggerhead sea turtle.

Hawksbill sea turtles, Eretmochelys imbricata, have a narrow head allowing access to tight spaces in coral reefs, the usual spot to find sponges. They consume 1,000 pounds of sponges annually, keeping coral reefs free from suffocation by the sponges. These turtles are medium size at 2′-3′ and 100-200 pounds. Females nest on beaches among rocky areas 3-4 times in a season and lay 140-200 eggs in each nest.

^{Hawksbill portrait, Eretmochelys imbricata, by Sheraca, Dec 2014; Hawksbill sea turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, by Goug Finney, Sep 2019}

Kemp’s ridley sea turtles, Lepidochelys kempii, are the smallest species at 2′ in diameter and 75-100 pounds. Kemp’s ridley turtles have made a huge recovery from the 1960s, when there were about 200 individuals left, to almost 9,000 today. This is due to changes in Mexico’s laws, where 95% of their nesting takes place, to protect nest sites from disturbance.

^{Kemp’s ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys kempii, by USFWS, Sep 2010}

Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, grow to 4′ and 500 pounds. They are herbivores with a finely serrated beak for biting seagrass and scraping algae from hard surfaces. This is the only species known to come onshore to bask in the sun. They are named for the color of their fat, not their shell.

^{Green sea turtle, Chelonia mydas, by Florida Fish&Wildlife}

Flatback sea turtles, Natator depressus, have a flattened carapace, unlike other turtles. They are medium sized at 3′ and 200 pounds. Found only in Australia, they do not migrate. Females lay only about 50 eggs in a nest, but nests are well spread out, helping to better protect their eggs. Their biggest threat is being preyed upon by saltwater crocodiles.

Leatherback sea turtles, Dermochelys coriacea, are the largest species at 4′-8′ and 500-2,000 pounds. They consume mostly jellyfish, daily eating their own weight in food. They have no scutes, but are covered by a flexible, leathery skin that allows them to dive up to 4,000 feet deep searching for prey. These turtles have thermoregulatory adaptations that allow them to hunt in very cold waters from Alaska to Chile, and they regularly make the longest migration of any vertebrate animal, traveling over 12,000 miles annually.

^{Leatherback sea turtle, Dermochelys coriacea, by Claudia Lombard, USFWS, Jun 2011}

Olive ridley sea turtles, Lepidochelys olivacea, are small at 2′ and 75-100 pounds. They are the most abundant of all species. On certain beach sites, nesting females form an arribada, a grouping of all the females offshore who all come ashore at the same time to nest and lay eggs. Females on other sites may nest alone. Arribadas are particularly vulnerable to mass mortality events, but these are rare and population numbers remain consistent.

^{Olive ridley sea turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea, by Charles Peterson, Head Start Programs, Oct 2002}

Loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, grow to 4′ and 200-400 pounds. Their very large heads and jaws can easily crush hard shells, allowing them to eat crabs, conches, and whelks. They have the largest concentration of nests annually, including 30,000 at a single Mediterranean location. Their shells provide space for 50 to 100 epibionts: plants and invertebrates that live permanently attached to their shells.

^{Loggerhead sea turtle, Caretta caretta, & epibionts by actor212, Aug 2017}

Bird Beaks

Birds have an amazing ability: flight. They use their wings, equivalent to our hands and arms, to lift themselves into the air and keep themselves aloft. But they still need to be able to do all of the things that mammals use their forelimbs for, and for that, birds have beaks, also called bills.

^{Female mallard, Anas platyrhycnchos, by Traci L. Smith Images}

^{Mallard diving for food by Alexas_Fotos, Pixabay}

A bill has an upper and lower jaw bone covered with toughened skin. The edges of each bill may be serrated for cutting, grooved and etched for grasping, or smooth. On some species, edges are soft, pliable, and loaded with nerve receptors that can detect what is moving through the bill. This allows birds that siphon their food from murky water to detect food even when it is not visible.

^{Black skimmer, Rynchops niger, fishing by Nick Dale, Getty Images}

^{Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, by Stockomotion, Getty Images Signature}

The bill’s skin sheath constantly exfoliates, or peels. New skin constantly grows from underneath, drying and hardening to replace the old skin. Excess layers of skin grow at the bill’s tip where most of the wear and tear takes place. Skimmers, of the genus Rynchops, have bills that grow at twice the rate of other species. They feed by trailing their lower bill in the water as the fly, wearing the skin down at a faster rate. Other protuberances and colors may enhance the bill. Atlantic puffins, Fratercula arctica, grow a bright orange, yellow, and black bill extension only during breeding season.

Bill shapes vary greatly among bird species and are used in a variety of ways for feeding……

Pelicans, genus Pelecanus, have hooked upper tips and a large pouch hanging under the lower jaw allowing them to scoop slippery fish out of the water and hold onto them.

^{Pelican hooked tip & pouch by McCaig, Getty Images}

The long-billed curlew, Numenius americanus, has a slim, curving bill that can reach deep into sand and mud for insects, clams, and small crustaceans.

^{Curlew probing the beach by Dypics, Getty Images}

The American oystercatcher, Haematopus palliatus, can pry open oysters and other bivalves.

^{Black oystercatcher with clam by Victoria Morrow, Sep 2020}

Ruby-throated hummingbirds, Archilochus colubris, have long, slim bills for probing deep flower nectaries to sip the nectar inside.

^{Ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilobus colubris, by Mattcudaphotos}

Whippoorwills, of the family Caprimulgidae, have bills fringed with bristles to catch insects by swinging their bills left and right while in flight.

^{Eastern whippoorwill, Antrostomus vociferus, bill with fringe by Budgora, Jun 2022}

Close-up of Eastern whippoorwill bill with fringe

Bills make great multi-use tools for many other daily activities. These may include preening, building nests, digging, turning eggs over, defending oneself, attacking prey species, scratching, assistance when moving and climbing, and displaying color and shapes during courtship and breeding. Other bill shapes are shown on the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum’s ‘Bird Beak Adaptations’ slide below. Come to the museum to learn more about these wonderful adaptations and other fascinating birds facts.

Midwestern Prairie

Grasslands make up the largest habitat in North America and cover about one-quarter of the Earth’s surface. There are many different types of grasslands, each with its own descriptive name. Prairie, found in North America, is from the French word for “meadow;” steppes, found in Asia, is Russian for “flat, grassy plain;” pampas, found in South America, is from Quechua meaning “flat surface;” and veldt, found in Africa, is from Afrikaans meaning “field.” In all of these areas, grasslands are characterized by flat or gently rolling countryside.

From upper left: The African veldt by Cello8, May 2007; Sunrise on the Mongolian steppes by Nicolas Mirguet, Apr 2011; Pampas grasslands, Uruguay, South America by Guilherme Boettcher, May 2010; Nachusa Grasslands, Lee County, Illinois by Justin Meissen, Jul 2007

Prairies in Illinois were formed by the action of glaciers retreating northward at the end of the last ice age. Massive ice fields compacted the soils and flattened the landscape. Many areas retained much of the melting ice in ponds, creeks, and rivers. These provided much needed moisture to help establish the new flush of vegetation that moved in as the climate warmed.

White River Prairie, Wisconsin by Joshua Mayer, Aug 2016

Several different types of prairies can be found, differentiated by the mixture of grasses and flowering plants, called forbs. We classify prairies as wet, mesic, meaning moderately moist, or dry. The determination is made based on how much water is retained in soil layers, but can be greatly influenced by temperature, rainfall amounts, and fire. Grasses have narrow leaves, can grow in drier environments, and are the dominant plant type in most prairies. Forbs have broad leaves and require more moisture than grasses. Prairie plants often have deep root systems to access water and nutrients.

From upper left: Big Bluestem, Andropogon gerardii by Matt Lavin, Sep 2019; Rattlesnake master, Eryngium yuccifolium by Adam B, Jan 2017; Grey coneflower seed heads, Ratabida pinnata by JanetandPhil, Nov 2010; Frosty Prairie dock, Silphium terebinthinaceum by Anne McCormack, Dec 2010; Indian grass, Sorghastrum nutans by Douglas Mills, Sep 2015

Animals that inhabit midwestern prairies are adapted to this habitat. They are able to find water and food in drier conditions, when water is scarce. They avoid the hazards of fire sweeping across the landscape. They keep warm during cold winter months. They avoid predators in a landscape with few hiding spaces. Many species are able to burrow underground for warmth, to avoid fire, and to escape predators. Others live near the ground in thicker vegetation that provides cover from wind, cold, and attack.

From upper left: American toad, Bufo americanus by Alan Huett, Jul 2008; Sedge wren, Cistothorus platensis by Joshua Mayer, Jul 2015; Thirteen-lined ground squirrel, Spermophilus tridecemlineatus by ChristaR., Nov 2016; Prairie kingsnake, Lampropeltis calligaster by Peter Paplanus, May 2022; Northern harrier, Circus hudsonius by Wendy Miller, Dec 2010

At this time of year, prairie plants are starting to go dormant and many bird species are migrating southward to warmer climates where food and water is abundant. It is a great time to get out and observe plants as they set seed and surprise us with the many hues of autumn. Birds are abundant as flocks fly overhead on their migration. Birds that spend the winter here are searching for areas that will provide seed and cover during the coming cooler months. Other animals are out to gather plants for insulation in their winter dens or seeds to store in their larder. Keep your eyes and ears open as you walk the prairie paths this month.

Midewin tallgrass prairie preserve, Wilmington, IL by CheapShot, Jun 2012

Dinosaurs At The Museum

Dinosaurs roamed North America millions of years ago, and while they are no longer part of the wildlife, we are able to see, study, and learn from them at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum (JSNM). Bones, skulls, teeth, and stomach contents unearthed at various sites are housed in numerous worldwide institutions.

^{Triceratops at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Triceratops was a common visitor to areas of western North America in the late Cretaceous period, from 68 to 66 million years ago. The name is Greek meaning “three-horned face.” The animal’s distinctive skull has two long horns located above the brow line of each eye, and one shorter horn off the tip of the nose. The brow horns, situated high on the head, may have exceeded three feet in length on the largest animals. A frill, or bony structure surrounding the back of the head, makes the head seem larger than the skull alone. In Triceratops, the frill could exceed seven feet from side to side.

Triceratops were large animals standing 10 feet tall with a length, from nose to tail, of about 30 feet. Their teeth were long and intimidating, but these animals were actually vegetarians. The teeth were used to shear through fibrous plant material that was difficult to cut and chew. The horns were very strong. They were used for defense against predators and when dueling for territory with other Triceratops individuals.

^{Tyrannosaurus rex half skull at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Tyrannosaurus rex, Greek for “king of the tyrant lizards,” is another species from the western United States. These animals moved swiftly on two huge rear legs. The body weight was balanced over these legs by a long, heavy tail and a massive skull. A full grown adult was estimated to be 13 feet tall, 41 feet in length, and weighed about 10 tons.

The skull cast at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum has several openings, thought to reduce the mass of the bony structure. It is very wide at the back, tapering to a narrow nose in front. The eyes are situated to provide excellent binocular vision, allowing the animal to accurately judge size and distance while running at a good pace. This was helpful for trapping prey and avoiding attackers.

^{Artistic rendering of Edmontosaurus by DariuszSankowski, Pixabay}

^{Edmontosaurus femur at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Several other fossils found in North America are on display at the museum. One is a femur from an Edmontosaurus, a genus of hadrosaurid or duck-billed dinosaur that lived alongside Triceratops in the western U.S. This dinosaur was a plant eater that could move on either two feet or all four feet. It is one of the best-studied species in the world due to the large numbers of bones that have been found. The skull held several hundred teeth, although only a few were in use at any given time. The rest were ready replacements for teeth that broke or wore down from the abrasive plant material in its diet.

^{images clockwise: Diplomystus analis; Diplomystus dentatus; Icthyosaur Stenopterygius Quadriscisius; Knightia alta; Mioplosus; Notogonius Oscuius; Perca obtusa; Phareodus testis; Priscacara liops; Pterosaur Phyllurus Ramphrhynicus; all images by DonArnold, Oct 2023, JSNM}

Other fossils available to view at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum include several fish species from the Cretaceous period that can be seen in the gallery above. Come on out to the museum to see these fascinating specimens and learn more, or take a trip to visit a natural history museum near you.

Night Buzzers

Have you had your windows open in the evenings and heard the night noises? Chirping, trilling, and buzzing sounds all provide a delightful background to quiet evenings in autumn. The sounds come from a variety of insect species including crickets, katydids, and cicadas.

^{Riley’s Tree cricket by EdwardSnow, Getty Images}

One method insects use to produce these unique songs is called stridulation. Crickets have a scraper on the edge of one wing and a serrated ridge on the opposite wing. When the scraper is moved across the ridge, a chirp can be heard. Crickets may move their wings slowly creating a continuous chirping sound, or more rapidly, creating a smoother and higher-pitched trilling. Katydid also uses this method with a row of stridulatory veins on the undersides of both forewings. Each row has small teeth-like protrusions. When the wings are rubbed together and the teeth slide over each other, a similar clicking sound can be heard.

^{Tree cricket from Pixabay}

^{Katydid by Pixabay}

^{Cicadas in the forest from Pixabay}

Cicadas use another method involving an organ called a tymbal to creating their unique night buzzing. The tymbal, located on their abdomen, is a pair of ribbed membranes that can be flexed against each other. When they are engaged, a ticking sound is created. When moved rapidly, the continual ticking is heard as a buzzing sound. Behind the tymbal, a hollow chamber in the body is used to amplify the sounds.

^{Speckled Bush Cricket by EVO GT, Aug 2012}

^{Common tree cricket nymph by Vinicius Rodrigues de Souza}

Stridulation in cricket species can only be performed by male crickets. Each species has a unique set of sounds, and there are songs for attracting a mate over a distance as well as a courtship song when she draws near. He may also use a warning sound to ward off any other males infringing on his territory. Tree crickets have long, skinny bodies, live in trees, are nocturnal, and their color is adapted to their habitat. In order to project their call further, they may pull a leaf together around themselves to amplify the sound.

^{Katydid by ElizabethPack, Getty Images}

^{Katydid by Macroworld, Getty Images Signature}

Katydids are nocturnal, from 1/2 to 5 inches in length with a leaf-like appearance that provides excellent camouflage for this tree-dweller. There are over 8000 species in the United States, each with its own distinctive song. Katydids can create everything from soft to loud, harsh sounds. Both sexes can create sound and it is used for many forms of communication. There are songs to attract a mate, songs to warn off potential competitors, songs that provide information about a potential mate, and songs that warn the nearby community of danger.

^{Cicada exoskeleton by GrigoriosMoraitis, Getty Images Signature}

Cicadas create a buzzing sound that can be heard across short distances. Much of the buzzing we attribute to them comes from several individuals together in one area. Songs are unique among each species and used similarly for attracting mates and establishing territory. In addition, a large group of cicadas will use buzzing to drive away potential insect predators who are intimidated by louder sounds including robber flies, mantises, and spiders.

Maybe you will take a stroll this evening, or open your windows for some nighttime air. Be sure to listen for the music in the background of the evening.

^{A night chorus from Pixabay}

Puffins

Puffins are part of the Alcidae family of seabirds along with murres, guillemots, auklets, murrelets, and 25 recently extinct species. All members of the family can fly and are excellent divers and swimmers. Three species are found in the North Pacific Ocean including the tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata, horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, and rhinoceros auklet, cerorhinca monocerata. The Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, is the only species found in the North Atlantic Ocean.

^{Images clockwise: Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, portrait by stockomotion, Getty Images Signature; Horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, showing horns over eye by webguzs, Getty Images; Tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata, on the water by Bruce Block, Getty Images Signature; Rhinoceros auklet, Cerorhinca monocerata, by nikkigensert, Getty Images}

The rhinoceros auklet was thought to have been misidentified when it was first discovered and named. However, DNA testing has shown that all four puffin species have a common auklet ancestor. Puffin species have short, stocky wings and tails, with darker gray-to-black plumage on top of their heads and backs and lighter whitish-to-brown plumage on their faces and underparts. Their bills change color during breeding seasons to display several stripes of red, orange, yellow, and black.

Tufted puffin, *Fratercula cirrhata*, breeding coloration by MrDaz, Getty Images Signature

Short wings require the birds to beat them quite fast to fly, about 400 beats a minute, but they achieve speeds of 45 to 55 mph in flight. Short wings are used as powerful flippers underwater along with feet used as rudders. Puffins can dive to 200 feet or more catching a dozen or more small fish and invertebrates as they swim through the water. A uniquely designed hinge on their bill allows the top and bottom bill to meet at several different angles so the bird can add more fish without losing its grip on any that are already caught.

^{Images clockwise: Horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, with fish catch in Alaska by Gerald Corsi, Getty Images; Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, with catch by Daniel Jara, Getty Images; Rhinoceros auklet, Cerorhinca monocerata, with seven fish Andrew Reding, Jul 2010}

Puffins spend winters at sea, far from land, floating on the surface or pursuing prey. Breeding season occurs in late spring, and most adult birds come together, forming large colonies containing breeding and non-breeding individuals. Non-breeding birds spend hours each day exhibiting a behavior called wheeling flight – flying figure eights over the cliffs where the colony is located. After finding a mate, puffins form long-term pair bonds. After breeding, pairs may split up when out at sea, but often return the next breeding season to find the same mate and nesting site. Puffins breed in large colonies on coastal cliffs of offshore islands. Only one egg is laid and both parents incubate the egg and feed the chick. Chicks fledge at night, and juveniles spend the first five years out at sea before returning to the breeding colonies.

^{Horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, nesting on Latrabjarg Cape, Vestfirdir, Iceland by Nikolay Tsuguliev, Getty Images}

^{Atlantic puffin roost by Shankar S., May 2016}

Puffins are not considered endangered, but are starting to encounter trends affecting the continuity of their successful breeding. Warming waters in the oceans are reducing populations of fish that breed and live in cold water areas, that are the favorite prey of the auk family. Threats on the mainland of Iceland, historically one of the largest breeding colonies, include being hunted by mink introduced in the 1930s, so most colonies are now located on offshore islands. Hunting for feathers, eggs, and meat has been sustainable on island ranges for hundreds of years. However, hunting on the American mainland during the late 1800s and early 1900s eradicated the population at one point. In the last 50 years, about 50,000 birds have returned to protected areas in Maine. Their biggest natural predator is the great black-backed gull which dive-bombs and picks off birds near shore during breeding periods.

^{Tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata, spreading its wings by TiannaChantal, Getty Images}

Puffins have an average lifespan of over thirty years, spending most of their lives out at sea. Reproduction rates are low with only one chick born each year to a pair of puffins, but a breeding pair may produce twenty chicks in their lifetimes and threats from natural predators are small. Puffins are favorite species in many zoos and some aquariums. Learn more by visiting a local institution or take a virtual tour from a live webcam at: https://explore.org/livecams/puffins/puffin-loafing-ledge-cam.

Carnivorous Plants

Plants and insects have myriad relationships to one another. Some are mutually beneficial, as when plants offer nectar to feed insects which in turn pollinate the plants. Other relationships only benefit the insects when they feed on leaves, stems, and roots. For carnivorous plants, preying on insects to fulfill their need for nitrogen and other nutrients benefits only the plants.

^{Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula by Len Worthington, Aug, 2016}

Pitcher plants are carnivorous, living in bogs and fens found in warm weather areas. In North America, most species are found along the southeastern coastal states from Texas to West Virginia. Bogs are depressions filled with rain or melted snow, while fens are similar but get their water from surface or groundwater. Both types of wetlands are low in oxygen and nitrogen, very acidic, and often quite cold. These characteristics slow down the rate of decay in the vegetation of the wetland, further reducing the availability of nitrogen which is a vital component of chlorophyll, the compound used by plants, along with water, carbon dioxide, and energy, to photosynthesize sugar for food.

^{Tracy’s sundew, Drocera tracyi by Matthew Paulson, May 2022; Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula by Judy Gallagher, Jun 2022; White-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla, showing downward hairs by Aaron Carlson, Sep 2013}

Carnivorous plants use several strategies to attract and trap insects. Pitfall traps have slippery faced leaves forming a funnel with a pool of digestive enzymes waiting at the bottom. Downward facing hairs on the leaves make it harder for insects to climb out. Some plants use an opposite strategy and cover their leaf surfaces with a sticky secretion, trapping any insects that land on them. Still others have a leaf-like structure made of two halves that snap together when an insect lands on an inner surface, trapping the insect inside. In both of the last two instances, digestive enzymes are then released to cover, kill, and break down the insect body for absorption by the plant.

^{White-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla, traps separated from flowers by NC Orchid, Apr 2016}

^{Two-spotted bumblebee, Bombus bimaculatus by Judy Gallagher, Jun 2022}

Carnivorous plants are insect pollinated and must be able to attract pollinators without trapping them. All of the plant species go through a dormant period as seasonal temperatures get cooler. Traps die back and are regrown when warmer weather returns. In several species, flowers bloom and attract pollinators with nectar, completing fertilization before traps develop. Other plants separate the flowers and traps by a physical distance. Traps usually lie close to ground level to attract crawling insects, and flowers are grown on top of tall stalks to attract flying insects. A third method is to make the flowers less attractive to potential prey, and make the traps less attractive to potential pollinators. This is achieved by using different colors, patterns, and scents on flowers and traps.

^{Metallic green sweat bee, Agapostemon sericeus by Dann Thombs, Aug 2008}

^{Cobra lily, Darlingtonia californica by Charles Peterson, Mar 2018}

Whether you are growing these unique plants at home or viewing them in a botanical garden or out in the wild, some of the plants and their pollinators to watch for include the white-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla and the two-spotted bumblebee, Bombus bimaculatus; the cobra lily, Darlingtonia californica and the mining bee, Andrena nigrihirta, Tracy’s sundew, Drosera tracyi and the metallic green sweat bee, Agapostemon sericeus, and the Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula and any of the hoverfly species, Toxomerus sp.

^{Bog landscape by Chris Moody, Jun 2009}

Beat The Heat

This week, the weather has been hot for the upper Midwestern U.S. with temperatures topping out above 100°F. Combined with high dew points in the mid-70s, the heat index temperature was upwards of 110°F. Here are some ways that plants and animals keep cool in the extreme heat.

^{Mojave Desert by LezusRocks, Getty Images}

^{Kit fox at entrance to desert den by Stevelenzphoto, Getty Images}

Desert environments, where hot conditions exist daily, are home to numerous animal species that live underground. Heat from the sun penetrates soils and sand layers for several inches, but at 20″ below the surface of the sand in the Mojave Desert, temperatures are fairly constant around 86°F while the surface may be over 110°F. Few large mammals are known to use burrows, although kit foxes and humans are two examples. Basements and lower levels in buildings are often preferred areas on hotter days.

^{Shaded walk in the woods by Felixmizioznikov, Getty Images}

Shade from trees is highly effective in creating cooler areas. Leaves are lighter in color than most soils and paved areas, and leaves reflect much of the sun’s radiation upwards, away from the shady area underneath. Denser foliage and rough leaf textures enhance the cooling effect. Under a shade tree, temperatures may drop up to ten degrees and other surfaces no longer exposed to direct sunlight, including our skin, may be 20 to 40 degrees cooler.

^{African elephant by Petr Polak, Getty Images: Black-tailed jackrabbit by Rancho_Runner, Getty Images; Fennec fox by Nattanan726, Getty Images}

Vasodilation occurs when blood vessels near the skin’s surface expand so more blood flows next to the skin. Many animals living in hotter climates, including fennec foxes, black-tailed jackrabbits, and African elephants, have large ears with broad, flat surfaces devoid of hair, fur, or other insulation. The ear’s large surface area is covered by a thin layer of skin and blood vessels. During hot weather, heat carried in the blood through the ear is readily lost to the outside environment, providing a cooling effect for the rest of the body.

^{Large crowd by Shaunl, Getty Images Signature}

Evaporative cooling is another method through which heat can be dissipated from a body. Trees use this method by losing water vapor through their leaves during photosynthesis, cooling the air under the leaves. Humans employ this method in a process called sweating. We lose warm water through skin pores directly to the air around us. Sweating also moistens our skin’s surface, indirectly providing additional cooling as air moves across the skins surface and wicks away additional heat. An important aspect enhancing the effectiveness of this method is our posture. Being supported by two legs, rather than four, exposes much less surface area to the direct rays of the sun, and much more surface area to air currents.

^{Forest path by Inga Nielsen, Getty Images}

While sweating is good for cooling, it is removing water from the body, which must be replaced for the process to continue. Exposure to today’s temperature extremes may result in a loss of three gallons of water or more from an average-sized human. As you are out enjoying nature during hot days, remember to keep hydrating to stay cool and keep other bodily systems healthy.

Ash Trees

In the past, ash trees were one of the more common street trees in many urban areas of the United States. However, with the introduction of the Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, a member of the beetle family native to Asia, our native ash populations have suffered severe losses.

^{Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, by Leah Bauer, USDA FS Northern Research Station, Bugwood.org}

^{Emerald ash borer larva by Oregon Department of Agriculture, Mar 2023}

^{Emerald ash borer damage by John Hritz, Aug 2006}

Ash trees have been a popular “street tree” species for many urban areas. It is estimated that by the late 20th century, 20% of all parkway trees in Chicago were ash species. Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, likes moist soils, but grows well in most conditions. White ash, Fraxinus americana, is very similar to green ash, but prefers well-drained sites. Both have furrowed bark appearing as tight rectangular blocks on young trees, but deepening into longer furrows and ridges resembling a diamond-shaped pattern in mature trees. Black ash, Fraxinus nigra, often found on wet sites, is covered with irregular, knobby bumps. All the barks are grayish-brown.

^{Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, flowers by DonArnold, Aug 2023}

^{Ash tree samara by Herve Breton, Getty Images}

In spring, ash trees grow small green or purple flowers with no petals. Most are wind pollinated, although several bee species collect the pollen and contribute to some seed development. Flowers appear on both male and female trees, but only female trees develop seeds. Seeds are called samaras, or “helicopter seeds,” due to the distinctive whirling pattern they exhibit as they fall off the tree in a lazy spiral to the ground. The seed is housed in a fully rounded shell at one end of the single wing of each samara.

^{Green ash, pinnately compound leaves by Robert H. Mohlenbrock. 1989, USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute (WSI), Lincoln}

Its pinnately compound leaves are another distinctive feature of the ash family. A compound leaf has a leaf blade divided into leaflets that are attached individually to the middle vein, each by its own stalk. The term pinnately refers to the arrangement of leaves, opposite one another along the middle vein. A terminal leaf, grown at the tip of the vein means there are always an odd number of leaflets, from 5 to 9 leaflets in ash species. Buds and branches also grow in this pattern, which can be observed on rose plants, as well as hickory and walnut trees.

^{White ash trees in autumn color by Cathy McCray, Nov 2016}

White ash is the main source of wood used in commercial applications. It is of medium weight and springy, able to absorb a shock and bounce back. This makes it valuable for bats, tennis rackets, bows and arrow shafts, along with a wide variety of other uses including tool handles, boats, and furniture. The seeds provide a valuable food source for several bird species including quail, duck, and turkey.

^{Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, bark by Kerry Woods, Apr 2022}

^{White ash, Fraxinus americana, bark by Virens, Sep 2009}

^{Black ash, Fraxinus nigra , bark by Robert H. Mohlenbrock, 1995, USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute (WSI), Chester}

Although many, many ash trees have been lost to attacks from Emerald ash borers over the past couple decades, a small number of green ash have proven more resistant. They provide great shade for parks, yards, and large areas. In fall, watch as white ash trees turn beautiful shades of gold, deep purple, and maroon. Be sure to make note of them on your walks and check back in a few months to view their spectacular fall displays.

Buttonbush

Over the past several days, there has been a lot of activity in our backyard pollinator garden in the area surrounding the buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis. This native shrub is a multi-stemmed flowering species that can grow from 3′ to more than 12′ tall. It needs lots of sunshine and prefers moist soils. Found in many habitats including sub-tropical swamps, shrub swamps in the northeast and upper Midwest, and southern and northern floodplain forests east of the Mississippi, this species prefers swampy backwater areas, marshes, wet meadow and bogs.

^{Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, whorled leaves by loonyhiker, Oct 2010}

Newer stems are green, but quickly turn dark brown to almost black, becoming scaly with age. Leaves are opposite or whorled around the stem, each one protruding at a slightly different angle than the one above. It is thought that this arrangement provides maximum exposure of the plant’s total leaf surface to the sun.

^{Buttonbush flowers by DonArnold, Jul 2023}

^{Bumblebee on buttonbush by DonArnold, Jul 2023}

The flower clusters appear as small balls between 1/2″ and 1″ in diameter, with over 200 spikes poking outward covering their entire surface. Each spike is actually an individual flower. Flowers are closely grouped together and exude an intense, sweet fragrance. The plant reproduces through a two-stage cycle where pollen is produced and falls onto the immature pistil. As visiting insects brush through the closely grouped flowers, pollen rubs off onto their bodies. Once the pollen is gone, the pistil matures and becomes sticky at the end. As other insects arrive, pollen from other plants is picked up by the sticky end to pollinate the plant.

After pollination is complete, and the flowers drop off the plant, the ball-shaped seedhead turns completely brown. Unless it is brushed off by a passing animal or it is eaten, the seedhead may remain with the plant through the entire winter season, dropping off in spring. Seeds will often disperse into wetland areas, floating to shore. Each seed ball contains two nutlets.

^{Red Admiral butterfly on buttonbush by DonArnold, Jul 2023; Honney bee on buttonbush by DonArnold, Jul 2023; Long-tongued tiger swallowtail on buttonbush by Owen Sholes, Getty Images}

Pollinators include many long-tongued insect species especially bumblebees, honey bees, tiger swallowtail butterflies and black swallowtail butterflies. In addition, over two dozen bird species utilize the shrub for food, shelter, and nest building material – most notably are wood ducks that use the plant’s structure to shelter their young. Amphibians and reptiles hide among clusters of buttonbush in wetland areas for protection during the breeding season. Several honey-producing bee species are attracted to its pollen and nectar.

^{Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, by NC Wetlands, Aug 2018}

With more than a dozen buttonbush species worldwide, it is an easy plant find and get close to for observing its flowers and fruits, as well as the behaviors of the many animal species that frequent this shrub.

Oak-Hickory Forest

Oak-hickory forests makeup one-fourth of all the woodlands in the eastern United States. At the end of the last ice age, oaks were only found in the Appalachian Mountains and the driftless section where glaciers did not form in southwestern Wisconsin. In the last 15,000 years they have repopulated the land from the Mississippi River to the Atlantic coastline.

Clockwise from top left: Quercus alba, white oak by Chris Andrei, Getty Images; Quercus palustris, northern pin oak by Michel VIARD, Getty Images; Quercus rubra, northern red oak by ValerijaP, Getty Images; Fraxinus pennsylvanica, green ash by Garsya, Getty Images; Carya ovata, shagbark hickory by Elmar Langle, Getty Images; Prunus serotina, black cherry tree by Ina Hensel, Getty Images

Oak-hickory forests are an open woodland community where trees make up less than 10% of the plant life. Species of both the red oak and the white oak groups dominate these wood including Northern red oak, Quercus rubra, black oak, Quercus velutina, white oak, Quercus alba, and bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa. Two members of the hickory family, shagbark hickory, Carya ovata, and bitternut hickory, Carya cordiformis, are also found in abundance. These forests are rich with several other tree species most notably red maple, Acer rubrum, sugar maple, Acer saccharum, black cherry, Prunus serotina, black walnut, Juglans nigra, and green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica.

^{Arisaema triphyllum berries by ES3N, Getty Images}

^{Arisaema triphyllum, jack-in-the-pulpit by Holcy, Getty Images}

The open structure of the forest supports a large variety of other plants that offer food, shelter from predators and weather, and places to raise a family. Food sources are plentiful including fruit-bearing plants of the genus Vaccinium, which includes blueberries and raspberries, and vines from the genus Vitis, which includes several species of wild grape. Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis, and Jack-in-the-pulpit, Arisaema triphyllum, along with several clovers, attract birds and insects that attract larger predators, creating a rich forest community. It is estimated that oak-hickory forests support over 300 animal species including birds, mammals, insects, reptiles and amphibians.

^{Oak woodland by fotoVoyager, Getty Images Signature}

Oak trees provide a haven for wildlife. Acorns, the fruit of an oak tree, are large and heavy, so they do not spread far from the tree. They offer good nutrition and are a favorite of many wildlife species, whether eaten immediately or cached and eaten over time. Oak trees retain their dead leaves throughout the winter, not letting them fall until early spring. The leaves provide shelter from wind and rain, as well as hiding many smaller birds and mammals from airborne predators. Oak trees have craggy bark providing shelter for insects and other small animals including many amphibian species that overwinter under the bark.

After dying, oak leaves retain tannin, a chemical that slows down their decay. As leaves build up on the forest floor year after year, they create thick layers used by amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, and insects for shelter from predators and weather. In winter, the leaf layer provides insulation from the snow and cold, allowing small animals to move around under the snow, hunting for food, or moving to other sites. However, the leaves can be advantageous to some predators, as well. Owls, and other nighttime hunters, have excellent hearing and can easily detect the sounds from crackling leaves as prey attempts to hide and flee.

^{Gnarled tree with large cavity from wepix, Getty Images Signature}

^{Nature lives forever in fallen trunks by Oleksiy Brunets, Getty Images}

Many tree species are susceptible to dry rot of their interior wood, and none more-so than members of the red oak family. This provides natural cavities for woodland species. Woodpeckers, owls, chickadees, and nuthatches, plus squirrels, raccoons, bats, amphibians, and reptiles all use cavities for shelter and protection. Almost 40% of animal species inhabiting oak-hickory forests will use cavities at some point in their lifetimes. As trunks and branches decay and fall to the forest floor, they create opportunities for food and shelter. In addition, animals drawn to these spaces provide food for larger predators.

As you walk through forested areas over the summer, take note of the tree species and the overall structure you observe Can you spot holes in trees, logs laying on the forest floor, and thicker layers of leaf cover? Are the woods open where you can see possible lanes of movement? What plants have fruit or seeds? Keeping a journal of observations helps us to identify the changes and enjoy these rich habitats.

^{Dry oak forest in springtime by Meinzahn, Getty Images}

^{Swamp oak forest in springtime by Aleksander, Getty Images}

Missing In Action

An apology to my readers, but a bit of back trouble and a lot of travel has gotten me off schedule for this month. BUT, I will be back the second Friday of July…

Summer Berries

Across the northern hemisphere, as spring moves into summer, animals are able to find more food sources. Amelanchier and mulberry trees are two fruit-bearing plants that are favorites of many bird and mammal species, including humans.

^{Amelanchier trees by Leonora Enking, Apr 2010}

^{Mulberry flower by Sueviews, May 2006}

^{Amelanchier grandiflora flower by Kurt Stuber, 2004}

Amelanchier is a genus of 30 species of pome-bearing fruit trees in the family Rosacea. This family includes several other fruit-bearing trees including apples, pears, and plums. The tree is a favorite for landscapers with its many white flowers covering the tree in early spring and its brilliant hues of red and orange in the autumn. Amelanchier can be a single stem or a multi-stemmed plant and will grow in almost any soil type, but the ideal habitat is partly sunny, well-drained areas of open woodland.

Amelanchier are known by many names. Serviceberry comes from the fact that when the plants are in bloom, the ground is thawed enough to hold funeral services. In the Cree Indian language, it is known as saskatoon, a name still commonly used in western North America. Shadblow, in old English, refers to a time when the bloom indicated the shad were running. Juneberry refers to the time of year when the berries ripen.

^{Amelanchier fruit by Oregon State University, Jul 2013; Immature mulberry fruit by Geo Lightspeed7, Apr 2022; Unripe white mulberries by Petru Dimitriu}

Serviceberry fruit is slightly larger than a blueberry and tastes of blueberry, lightly peppered with strawberry and almonds. The berries are light green when young and gradually grow plump and sweet as they ripen to dark red and purple. They are a favorite of many bird species including robins and cedar waxwings in my area. Fruit is rapidly eaten as soon as it starts to darken, and almost none is left to fully ripen unless the tree is covered with netting.

^{Cardinal eating mulberry by Carolyn Lehrke, Jun 2015}

^{Robin and mulberries by Zone~V, Jan 2016}

Mulberry trees, of the genus Morus, have 64 species worldwide, and are another important summer food source. Red mulberry, Morus rubra, is the only one native to the United States. White mulberry, Morus alba, is native to South Asia but can be found on many continents, and it is considered an invasive in parts of Brazil and the U.S. All species grow quickly when they are young, reaching heights of nearly 80 feet.

Mulberry trees can be easily grown from either seed or a plant cutting. The market for their fruit is worldwide with some places, such as the U.S., importing millions of pounds each year. While easy to grow, establishing a viable crop for market has many difficulties. Trees do not produce fruit for the first ten years, and their highest yields are when the trees are 30-80 years old. The fruit is a favorite of many bird and mammal species, and is often eaten well before it is ripe enough to pick. Leading producers are Turkey and Iran who have been growing mulberries for several centuries.

^{Pick your own mulberry by Katarina, May 2014}

^{Mulberry cobbler by Eden, Janine and Jim, Jun 2021}

^{Mulberry jam by Amanda Slater, Jul 2021}

Plump, juicy, and sweet berries from both plants are high in vitamin C and iron. Fruits can be eaten straight from the trees or used in a variety of recipes. Other parts of these plants contain a milky sap that is mildly toxic to animals and humans if ingested. The wood is hard, tight-grained and heavy, with many of the same qualities as oak. It is used in furniture and fence posts. Historically, it has been used for arrow shafts and body armor. Amelanchier leaves and bark may be dangerous to cattle, sheep, and goats if consumed in large quantities. The white mulberry, Morus alba, is an important tree for the silk industry. The leaves of this species are the only food source for the silkworm, Bombyx mori; its cocoons are used to produce silk.

^{Silkworm, Bombyx mori, on Morus alba by Gorkaazk}

As you walk woodland areas near your home, watch for berry-loaded trees in your neighborhood. Keep track of each time you see them and what stage the berries are in – and how many are left on the tree. See if you can observe and learn more about who is eating this sweet, juicy food source of summer.

Ferns

Ferns are a group of well-known plants that first developed during the carboniferous period about 350 million years ago when the climate was stable, warm, and wet. Ferns were globally abundant in woodlands and marshlands providing suitable habitat for them.

Ferns were the first group of plants with vascular systems. Vascular plants utilize tube-like structures, called xylem tissue and phloem tissue. Water and minerals are moved from roots to fronds (leaves) through the xylem tissues and are used in photosynthesis to create food that is distributed throughout the rest of the plant in phloem tissues. Vascular systems also provide internal support so these plants can stand upright on their own.

^{Fertile fronds, Christmas fern in Sheipsit State Forest, CT by Holcy, Getty Images}

Early scientists noted that ferns came back every year, but produced no flowers or seeds. In 1669, it was discovered that spores grew on the surface of the fronds, but it was not until the mid-18th century that the entire reproductive process was understood. Spores are one-celled organisms that start to develop in springtime. They appear by the thousands as small green bumps on the undersides of fronds. As summer progresses, the sporangia, a capsule that contains the spore, turns brown. Clumps of these are called sori, and can easily be observed on fern fronds. In late summer, when the sporangia mature, they open and release their spores. Some plants will forcefully shoot their spores away from the fronds and some will open and let the spores drift away, caught by any small breeze.

^{Polystichum richardii in Stanley Park, Akaroa by Jon Sullivan, Aug 2006}

^{Lady fern sporangia by Kerry Woods, Mar 2013}

Most spores will not land in a spot with favorable growing conditions (fertile soil and water), but the spore may remain viable for up to a year, should conditions change. Spores do not contain a small plant like a seed does. A spore starts as a one-celled organism that grows by dividing itself in two during the first phase of reproduction called the gametophyte generation. As this division continues, a small structure called a prothallium grows, getting its nutrients directly from contact with water. Two more structures develop. The archegonium contains an egg, and the antheridium contains sperm. When water is present, the sperm will swim to the egg, fertilize it, and eventually a new, self-supporting plant grows.

^{Crozier shaped fronds by Ray Hems, Getty Images Signature}

The fern develops underground over the winter. In spring, when ground temperatures have risen, fernlets will push tightly coiled fiddleheads through the soil into the open air. A fiddlehead, also called a crozier, is a group of young, coiled fronds (leaves) of a fern. As the fern grows, the upper and lower surfaces of the fronds grow at different rates, and the fiddlehead uncoils, straightening out into several fronds. The plant is entering the second phase of reproduction, known as the sporophyte generation, where spores will be grown on the undersides of the fronds.

^{Green Boston fern frond, Nephrolepsis exaltata by Noppharat05081977 Getty Images}

^{Staghorn fern frond veins by IveehCoombs_Photography, Getty Images}

^{Staghorn ferns by Eyepark, Getty Images}

Ferns can also reproduce through cloning. The walking fern, Asplenium rhizophyllum, grows long fronds that eventually bend over and touch the ground. Wherever a tip touches moist soil, new roots are sent out, and a cloned plant develops. The Boston fern, Nephrolepsis exaltata, grows runners – leafless stems that branch out horizontally. Wherever they come in contact with moist soil, roots are sent out to clone another Boston fern. The staghorn fern, Platycerium sp, grows buds on its roots. As the soil around the plant is moistened by water containing nutrients, a new plant pushes upward through the soil from each bud.

^{Walking fern, Low Tatras mountains, Slovakia by Vrabelpeter1, Getty Images}

Ferns grow well in a variety of habitats. Many species prefer damp woodlands, but some grow on cliff faces or in rocky, dry locations. Be sure to watch for various species of ferns when you are out walking. A good field guide can help with fern identification and provide distinguishing information on this amazing plant group.

Bird Eggs

It is spring in the northern hemisphere, and many birds are claiming territories, finding mates, and establishing nesting sites. Raising new families will take most of the summer and early autumn. As we watch birds who have laid their eggs, it may seem that not much happens until the young hatch, but there is lots of activity taking place.

^{RWBB calling by mirceax from Getty Images}

An ovum, the female reproductive cell, starts its journey to become an egg in the oviduct where it is fertilized by stored sperm from a male and encased in a glob of protein-filled gelatin to form a yolk. Additional proteins, known as the albumin or egg white, are added to nourish the embryo as it grows inside the egg. Calcium carbonate, a mineral added by special cells in the bird’s uterus, encloses the gelatin-like mass of protein and embryo, slowly hardening into the egg’s shell. Egg shells are not completely solid, but are perforated with many minute holes that allow air to reach the developing embryo. Pigmentation is squirted onto the shell adding color and pattern to the outside. A coating of protein determines the outer texture of the egg which may be smooth, glossy, dull, rough, or powdery.

^{Egg collection, Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, Benedictine University, Lisle by DonArnold}

The total number of eggs laid at one time is called a clutch and some bird species lay only one a year, but many species produce two, or more, annually. A consistent number of eggs is found in each clutch, although additional clutches in the same year may contain fewer eggs. Eggs vary widely in size, shape, and color among various bird species. Egg shapes may be determined by the location of the nest. Cavity nesters tend to have rounded eggs, while cliff dweller’s eggs are often oval with a broad end on one side and a pointed end on the other to prevent the egg from rolling very far. Where a clutch has a greater number of eggs, pointed shapes fit into smaller spaces enabling the mother to easily cover them all when sitting on the nest.

^{Nesting female hummingbird by jaypiercestorffphoto}

Incubation is the process of keeping the eggs warm. An adult usually develops a brood patch underneath its belly where feathers and down disappear and blood vessels close to the skin’s surface can warm the area that is in direct contact with the eggs. Incubation periods are consistent in each species, but may be lengthened by abnormal cold spells.

^{Blue robin eggs in nest by Dennis Flarsen, Pixabay}

^{Western bluebird eggs by Summit to Seashore Birding, Sep 2007}

Color is added into the shell material before it hardens. Colors may vary in hue and saturation on individual eggs, and the deepest hues are often found at the largest end. Pigments are chemicals with complex molecular structures that produce color when mixed with water. Birds have two pigments: reddish-brown hues and bluish-green hues. Here are several theories as to why eggs have markings, but exact reasons are not known.

Heavier pigments are often found in birds that lay their eggs in open, exposed environments, and the markings may serve as camouflage. Many cavity nesters lay white eggs, which are well hidden from other birds, predators, and the sun. Some eggs laid in exposed nests may still be brightly colored, but covered by the female most of the time.

^{Quail eggs showing pigmentation by Piyachok from Getty Images}

Darker colors and markings are often found among species that breed in cooler climates. Pigments are known to absorb UV radiation from the sun and not allow it to harm a developing embryo. But, light absorption by an area of pigmentation generates more heat inside the shell, which may also be harmful. Pesticides and other chemicals in the environment can cause thinning of the shell casing, making them more susceptible to breakage. Pigments tend to gather at weaker spots in the shell casing and have been shown to strengthen the shell.

Several aspects of bird egg development are not yet understood, and many theories are under investigation. An interesting question currently under review is whether a bird, or another animal such as a predator, sees different aspects of the light spectrum than humans. If so, what do birds see when they look at an egg? A new bird’s life starts in an egg, a small and wonder-filled package that has been much studied and yet still presents many unanswered questions.

To learn more, consider visiting your local nature museum.

The Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University in Lisle, Illinois, has an extensive egg collection displayed by clutch size and covering almost 200 bird species.

Bee An Early Pollinator

There are over 20,000 species of bees world-wide, and more species are found every year. Bees are important pollinators, especially in early springtime. Other pollinator species abound, and all are important to the life-cycle of flowers, but bees are thought to increase seed production by about 70%.

^{Dandelions on day 100 by Mike Deal, Apr 2010}

The bees we see in our gardens are all adults, emerging from their nests between early spring and late summer. The first to emerge are the bumblebees. They have wingbeats of about 200 strokes per minute and a metabolic rate that is double that of a hummingbird, allowing them to generate plenty of body heat to stay warm during cool spring weather. Orchard bees are the next out as soon as daily temperatures stay in the mid-50s. Native honeybees may also come out at about this time, but imported bees cannot fly in temperatures less than 60˚F. Early blooming flowers including dandelion, jewelweed, aster, goldenrod, and clover, are important sources for pollen and nectar in spring.

^{Honeybee covered in zucchini pollen by John Kimbler, Getty Images}

As crop plants start to flower, including fruit trees and vegetables, a large pollinator workforce is needed. Almost one-third of the food consumed by humans comes from plants requiring pollination. As pollen is collected by bees, the grains are spread over the bee’s body, allowing some of those grains to rub off and pollinate subsequent plants as the bee follows a route visiting various flowers. Adult bees feed mostly on nectar, eating very little of the pollen they collect. Pollen is brought to the nest to feed their young.

^{Bumblebee in flight with loaded corbicula by mirceax, Getty Images}

Honeybees and bumblebees have a bare spot on their back leg called a corbicula, surrounded by inward curving hairs. As pollen is collected from each flower, it is scraped into this holding area, which may amount to 20% of their body weight while in flight. After landing, a bee grips a flower tightly with its jaws and legs. Snuggling close to the anthers, the bee vibrates and dances to disrupt the pollen inside and let it fall onto their bodies. They proceed to groom all the pollen grains into the corbicula before moving onto the next blossom. When the corbicula full, the bee will fly straight to the nest, unload all of the pollen, and return immediately to where they left off to collect more.

^{Honeybee collecting pollen into scopa by baianliang, Getty Images Signature}

Other bees store pollen in scopa, tufts of hair on their legs and abdomens. As pollen covers the bee during its flower visits, the four front legs are used to scrape the pollen down past their abdomen where the two back legs pack it into the scopa. Some bees may carry the pollen dry, and others may mix in a little nectar to form a dough-like substance that easily sticks to their body hair.

Brown honeybee heading into narrow opening by Gregory Johnston

Buzz pollination video @ This Vibrating Bumblebee Unlocks a Flower’s Hidden Treasure | Deep Look

Pollen collection has resulted in the development of several adaptations found among many bee species. Electrostatically charged body hair attracts pollen. The charge is a result of air moving across the body while the bee is in flight. When plants are small enough that only the bee’s head fits inside, hooked hairs on faces and under chins allow easy pollen collection. Some plants keep pollen in anthers, long tubes that must be turned upside down and shaken to release the pollen. Many bee species use buzz pollination, hanging onto the anthers to tip them, then vibrating their wing muscles to loosen the pollen, allowing it to fall on themselves.

^{Red head bee, Pachyprosopis eucyrta, licking up nectar by Jean&Fred Hort, Mar 2014}

Nectar provides carbohydrates in the form of sugars and amino acids. Bees use their tongues to lick it or suck it up. Several species have longer tongues for use on deep-necked flowers. Honeybees collect nectar and bring it back to their hives to store it. Over time, some of the water content evaporates, forming honey. This is used as food over winter or at times when other food is scarce. Some bumblebees have been shown to also collect and return nectar to the hive, but don’t create true honey. This nectar is used as nourishment for the hive-bound queen only, not as a food source for the entire colony.

As we begin to see the many blossoms of spring and summer, remember that adult bees are only out in our gardens for a short period of their lives. We can assist their work as pollinators by allowing early spring flowers to finish their blooms before cutting them down.

^{Bumblebee on flower from skitterphoto, Pixabay}

^{Bumblebee collected pollen by vinkirill, Getty Images}

Schedule Change

Discover-Nature is making some changes for the summer. We will have a new blog coming out the 2nd and 4th Fridays of each month.

The Site Navigation pages are being updated with each new blog, as well as some older additions. If you are looking for a specific species, my Archives By Species page lists all of the blogs by common name followed by genus/species.

A new tag cloud can be found on the right hand bar, and all blogs are included in the Archives By Category pages.

Watch the Site Navigation menu on the right-hand bar, for a few new entries coming out over the summer.

Thank you all for reading the blog and supporting your local nature museums and programs!

The Ocean Deep

Seventy percent of the Earth’s surface is under the ocean, and only a small portion is in shallow water along continental shelf areas. The ocean is divided into five zones; the sunlight zone, above 650 feet; the twilight zone, extending to 3300 feet; the midnight zone, down to 13,000 feet; the abyssal zone, down to 21,300 feet; and the hadal zone, extending to the bottom of the ocean. Below 3,000 feet, no light penetrates from the surface; the water temperatures are freezing; and oxygen levels are very low. The pressure exerted on any surface at sea level is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi), and humans can withstand three to four times this amount, or 45 psi to 60 psi. At 3,000 feet deep, the pressure is 1,345 psi.

^{Delta submersible by Robert Schwemmer, CINMS, NOAA, Oct 2010}

Pressure keeps sea water from becoming solid ice, even when it is at freezing temperatures. It also makes exploring the ocean difficult, requiring special submersible vehicles. Everything moves more slowly under pressure, and a submersible can take an explorer deep into the ocean given enough time and oxygen. Deep sea creatures can survive because the structure of their bodies is lean and contain no air spaces. Let’s take a look at a few of the wondrous creatures that live in these habitats.

^{Humpback anglerfish by August Brauer in Public Domain}

In the darkness of deep areas, many species find food and mates by touch. Others may use bioluminescent communication – the ability to create light from a chemical reaction between luciferin and oxygen within an organism’s body. Lights show up as spots of various colors on different parts of the body and may be used for attracting a mate, confusing a predator, or attracting prey. Lanternfish have several spots located on their heads, undersides, and tails. Female anglerfish and dragonfish have a shaft that protrudes from their head out in front of their mouths with a glowing tip attracting prey within striking distance. Gulper eel use the lighted tip of their tail as a lure to attract a meal.

^{Tripod fish by NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program, Public domain, 2010}

^{Fangtooth fish by Sandra Raredon-Smithsonian Institution, Public domain}

Tripod fish have two pelvic fins and a tail fin that are elongated and can be filled with fluid to stiffen them, allowing the fish to stand on the ocean bottom while conserving energy. Two long, wavy pectoral fins act as arms to detect prey floating or swimming by and push the prey toward their mouths. Fangtooth fish is another species that can detect vibration and nearby movement. This species is only six inches in length, but have the largest teeth in proportion to their body size of any fish in the ocean. The long lower fangs fit into pouches in the roof of their mouths so their teeth do not pierce their brain cavity.

^{Dragonfish teeth array by UC San Diego Jacobs School of Engineering, May 2019}

The dragonfish, another small fish about six inches long, has a frightening array of teeth located on its jaws and tongue. Their teeth are transparent and their bodies are black, making them impossible to see even in depths where there may be some light. The jaws are loosely hinged, allowing the fish to open its mouth wider than normally hinged jaws would allow. Prey swimming nearby may not notice the wide opening, nor be able to detect the transparent teeth, making the dragonfish a top predator of invertebrates, squid, and shrimp. In addition, when biting, they inject a highly toxic poison to paralyze and kill their prey. This toxin can be dangerous to humans getting bitten or attempting to eat this species.

^{Giant spider crab by Michael Coghlan, Jan 2014; Gulper eel by Claf Hong, Mar 2005; Lanternfish, Myctophum punctatum1 by Emma Kissling}

Some fish practice diel vertical migration, a pattern of movement where a species feeds near the surface at night and moves back into deeper waters to rest during the day. Lanternfish come up to feed on zooplankton and fangtooth fish feed on squid in shallow waters. Some species, including anglerfish and gulper eels, have elastic-like skin for their mouths and stomachs. Mouths can be opened extremely wide to swallow prey larger then themselves. The food is contained in a similarly elastic stomach which shrinks slowly as digestion progresses. Several different species of spider crabs roam the ocean depths scavenging for meat or plant material that falls to the bottom.

Deep-sea animals are seldom seen, but are not immune from climate change and human impacts. Scientists continue to study changes in deep-sea food webs caused by overfishing, ocean acidification, and expanding low-oxygen zones. Learn more about the habitat and species of these areas at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University or your local nature museum or aquarium.

Maple Trees

Maple trees in the northern U.S. are coming into bloom at this time of year. Maples bloom in late winter and early spring, and the flowers come in green, yellow, orange, and red hues. There are about 130 species worldwide, and except for one species, all are found in the northern hemisphere across Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America. Thirteen maple trees are native to North America, and we will take a look at a few of the more common ones.

^{Holland Red Maple Swamp, Wisconsin State Natural Area by Joshua Mayer, May 2012}

Several species are large trees, reaching from 40′ to 65′ in height with 20″ to 60″ diameter trunks. Trunks are dark grayish-brown with ridged bark. Crowns appear generally rounded and root systems are widely spread. Maple trees do well in most habitats, particularly moist to wet soil, along streams or in bottomlands.

^{Sugar maple in spring by J Stephen Conn, Jul 2007}

Sugar maple, Acer saccharum, is well known for its maple syrup, marketed world-wide. When temperatures drop below 40˚, maple trees stop growing and excess starch is stored until temperatures start to rise again. Enzymes in the tree change the starch into sugar which is carried by tree sap flowing through the xylem and phloem cells, located just beneath the bark. A tap gently pounded through the bark intercepts some of the sap and collects it into buckets. It takes 40 gallons of sap to produce one gallon of maple syrup. Historically, the wood was used for railroad rails, plow blades, and wagon wheels. After burning, its ashes are rich in potash and make excellent fertilizer as well as an additive for soap and pottery glazing.

^{Maple tree tapping by PublicDomainPictures , Pixabay}

Black maple, Acer nigrum, is a close relative to the sugar maple, and these two species easily hybridize. Both species are shade tolerant, often found growing together for several years as understory trees. Sap from black maple trees may also be used in maple syrup production. Black and sugar maples are hardwoods, stronger and harder than other maple species, and valued for use as basketball court and bowling alley floors, workbenches, cutting boards, and baseball bats.

^{Bowling alley by vtwinpixel, Getty Images; Maple & other baseball bats by Comstock Images: Maple workbenches from thelinke, Getty Images Signature}

Red maple, Acer rubrum, provides food from seeds, buds, and flowers for squirrels, chipmunks, deer, moose, and elk. In winter, stumps and small twigs are an important food source for rabbits. Pollen is produced early in the spring and is a much needed food source at this time of year for bees and other pollinators. Red maple is also attractive to insects and fungi, which invade the wood and create many open cavities in trunks and large branches, favored as nesting sites for wood ducks and other species.

^{Red maple buds & flowers by Martin LaBar, March 2010}

^{Baby squirrel in maple tree by William Krumpelman, Getty Images}

Red maple has several qualities that have made it a widely used ornamental tree. It grows well in shady sites; it is tolerant of flooding and water-logged soils; it is one of the first to colonize disturbed sites and anchor the soil, and it has a rapid growth rate, colorful flowers and foliage, and lives 75 to 100 years. Maple flavored drinks, such as tea, are made from inner bark scrapings. Bark is also used in the production of ink and black or brown dyes. The wood is used for smoking meat and in the production of some whisky varieties.

Silver maple, Acer saccharinum, is a fast growing tree with a root system attracted to any source of water. It is easily grown in shady areas and wet soils, make it a well-liked ornamental tree. However, it causes many sewer and drain issues in urban settings in its search for water. The wood is hard but very brittle, and branches easily break in heavy winds. This often results in trunks having hollow cavities used for shelter by various animal species including wood ducks and squirrels. Seeds are abundant and are a favorite for birds and small mammals. The sap makes a delicious syrup, but requires twice as much volume as sugar maple trees, making it not commercially viable.

Box elder, Acer negundo, is another maple species that is often found near water. This tree easily tolerates drought and extreme cold, although the wood is weak compared to other maple species, and branches often break when subjected to heavy loads of snow and ice. Box elder produces abundant seeds late in the year that provide a great winter food source for mice, squirrels, and seed-eating birds. Branches are small in diameter, so it is not often used for lumber, but it has several uses as pulp wood for producing crates, boxes, and composite wood panels.

^{Under the spreading maple by Jo Zimny, Oct 2020}

As you are out walking in your area, be sure to look for the many species of maple trees that grow in yards and woodlands, often distinguished by bright flowers, abundant seeds, and lively green foliage. Also, be sure to take the chance to observe their spectacular fall foliage later in the year.

Frog Calling

Spring has arrived bringing rising temperatures, warm winds, and spring rains to the upper Midwest. This is the time of year when many amphibians, most notably salamanders, frogs, and toads, start their annual breeding periods. Illinois has nineteen native frog species. They are secretive and difficult to find most of the year; but spring is the season for mating, and males will leave their woodland homes and make their way to the nearest pond on nights when temperatures stay in the forties or above.

Frogs use a variety of different calls. Advertisement calls, the loudest calls voiced by male frogs, advertises their presence and availability to potential mates. The courtship call, a slight variation of the advertisement call, is used as a female gets close to direct her to the exact location where the male is waiting. If a male mounts an unreceptive female, or mounts another male, which can happen by mistake in the dark, a release call is emitted to inform the male to stop and look for another potential mate. Aggressive calls may be used by one male towards another who gets too close. And if any frogs are attacked by a predator, a loud distress call is made. This may be to startle the attacker or warn other frogs in the area.

^{Waterfall Glen gray tree frogs calling by DonArnold, 2022}

Calls are created by filling the lungs with air, and then blowing out a steady stream of air over the vocal chords. When calling, the mouth and nostrils are normally closed. The air is passed from the lungs, over the vocal chords in the larynx and into the air sac under the mouth. This air sac, shown in many frog pictures, amplifies the sound to help it carry farther. Calling requires considerable energy and may increase the metabolic rate, the rate at which calories are used, from ten to twenty times the resting rate of an individual. For frogs with breeding periods lasting many weeks, the expenditure of calories will cause a male to lose a significant amount of body weight.

^{NoName Marsh, Boreal Chorus & Spring Peeper by DonArnold, Mar 2022}

Many different species of frogs lay their eggs in the same ponds. Males arrive early in the evening and begin advertising, while females arrive a bit later and identify a potential mate based on his call. When a gravid female approaches, the male clasps her from on top and holds on. After a time, the female releases her eggs in the water, and the male immediately fertilizes them by releasing sperm into the water around the egg sac. Depending on the species, all of the eggs may be deposited in one egg sac or in several separate egg sacs. Egg laying can last several minutes to several hours. After each group of eggs is laid, the male and female may separate or rest for a brief period and then move to another spot to deposit more eggs.

Their skin is moist and cool to the touch. It is permeable, allowing air to pass directly through it into their circulatory system, helping to remove some of the workload from the lungs and heart. This can be especially useful during inclement weather. However, the skin’s permeability makes them susceptible to drying out, so they live in or close to water or high humidity environments. Their lifestyle includes being active mostly at night or on overcast days when it is cooler and more humid.

^{From left: Spring peeper calling by Andrew Hoffman, Jan 2000; Ornate chorus frog calling by FWC Fish & Wildlife, Jan 2014; Green tree frog calling by Eyeweed, Dec 2009}

Many frog populations have been impacted by losses of both wetland and forest habitat. Wetlands are used for breeding and forests provide sheltered areas with shade, ground cover, and higher humidity than areas open to bright sunlight. During spring evenings or overcast days, listen closely as you pass by these shady areas and nearby ponds to catch sound or sight of these wonderous small creatures.

Nuthatches

In northern Illinois, it is still winter, and we have enjoyed watching various birds at our backyard feeders, including nuthatches. There are four species native to North America and about two dozen more found world-wide. Taxonomists have moved several species back & forth between genera in recent years, making the exact number of species vary from time to time. The name is from an English reference to the behavior of wedging a nut into a crevice and pecking at it until the inner portion is hatched and can be eaten.

White-breasted nuthatch, Sitta carolinensis by Mdf, Dec 2005; Pygmy nuthatch, Sitta pygmaea by Len Blumin, Mar 2006; Brown-headed nuthatch, Sitta pusilla by Anne Davis, Nov 2013; Red-breasted nuthatch, Sitta canadensis by Katie Herr, Dec 2013

Nuthatches have short tails and legs, compact wings, powerful bills, and strong claws. Nuthatch species have similar markings including varying hues of grayish-blue wings, black caps, a white throat, and light colored white-buff-reddish bellies. In most species, a dark eye-stripe and white cheeks frame each side of the face. Males and females are hard to distinguish, although males may have darker hues on their bellies.

White-breasted nuthatches, Sitta carolinensis, stand 5″ tall with a white face completely surrounding the eyes. They range from southern Canada to Mexico. Red-breasted nuthatches, Sitta canadensis, have a white face and neck and range from southern Canada to the central U.S. Brown-headed nuthatches, Sitta pusilla, have a white belly and cheeks with a white spot at the nape of the neck. They are found in the pine forests of the southeast U.S. Pygmy nuthatches, Sitta pygmaea, characterized by a white spot under their eyes, are found west of the Rocky Mountains from British Columbia to central Mexico.

White-breasted nuthatch, Sitta carolinensis, heading down by Sarunas Burdulis, Feb 2021
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by Aidan Place, May 2020

Nuthatches are the only birds that can walk head first down a tree trunk, allowing them to forage up or down a tree trunk, seeing insects in crevices missed going the other way. They are comfortable eating while hanging upside down, as are woodpeckers; however, the nuthatch does not use its tail for support relying solely on the strength of its feet. They eat insects and invertebrates when available, but will readily feed on seeds, peanut butter, and suet in colder periods. Food items are often cached in crevices in trees and then covered by lichen or bits of bark.

Brown-headed nuthatch, Sitta pusilla by Shawn Taylor, Mar 2020
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by PT Xiao, May 2022

Nuthatches prefer open woodlands near sea level in temperate climates. In warmer southern regions, they live at slightly higher elevations. They use abandoned woodpecker holes or natural cavities in trees for nesting. Inside, they build a small cup from twigs, lined with soft material for their eggs. Entrances may be protected in a variety of ways. Red-breasted nuthatches collect pine resin to line the rim of the nest hole and avoid it themselves by diving straight into the hole. White-breasted nuthatches often crush blister beetles and rub the remains around the rim, using the foul smell to deter potential predators.

Red-breasted nuthatch, Sitta canadensis by Walter Siegmund, Jul 2008
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by Matthew L. Brady, Jan 2023

Nuthatches are one of only a few animals that use tools. A small piece of bark is often used by red-breasted nuthatches to apply resin to the nest entrance. Bark splinters are also used by brown-headed nuthatches to pry up bark on tree trunks and extract the insects underneath. If the tool performs well, the bird will carry it from place to place. Pygmy nuthatches live in large, extended family groups with other relatives often helping to care for younger birds. They nest in large family groups, huddling together for warmth on cold nights. Red-breasted nuthatch irruptions are common in the central U.S. when the weather turns harsh in Canadian boreal forests, making it difficult to find enough food.

Pygmy nuthatch, Sitta pygmaea by Becky Matsubara, Aug 2019
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by Ron Overholtz, Jan 2019

Nuthatches are a favorite species at backyard bird feeders. They will turn up daily for seeds, nuts, peanut butter, and suet, and are entertaining as they flit in and out, taking food items away to cache in nearby trees or other crevices.

Listen to additional calls and songs for each species at the following sites: White-breasted nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-carolinensis Red-breasted nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-canadensis Brown-headed nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-pusilla Pygmy nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-pygmaea

Weasels

Weasels are members of the Mustelidae family, a group of carnivores that also includes badgers, otters, ferrets, martens, minks, and wolverines. All species have long necks and bodies with short legs, small, round ears, and thick fur. They are solitary animals that are active year-round, mostly at night. They use strong smelling scents from anal glands to mark their territory and signal other individuals when seeking a mate.

^{Clockwise: Black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, by J. Michael Lockhart, USFWS, Dec 2010; American mink, Neogale vison, by Patrick Reijnders; Common badger, Meles meles meles, by Prosthetic Head, Jun 2010; Wolverine, Gulo gulo, by National Park Service, 1968; Pine marten, Martes martes, by John Surrey, May 2015; Eurasian otter, Lutra lutra, by Bernard Landgraf, Jan 2005}

There are five species of weasels native to the Americas. Short-tailed weasels, also-known-as stoats, Mustela erminea and least weasels, Mustela nivalis, are found in the Arctic regions of northern Canada and Alaska. The long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenata, ranges from southern Canada through most of the continental United States to Central America and the northern areas of South America. Two other species of weasels that live in northern and central South America include the Colombian weasel, Neogale felipei, and the Amazon weasel, Neogale africana. The odd species name for the Amazon weasel was first derived from a museum skeleton that had been mislabeled as originating in Africa.

^{Short-tailed weasel, Mustela erminea, summer coat by Steve Hillebrand, USFWS, Nov 2012}

^{Short-tailed weasel, Mustela erminea, winter coat by Steven Hint, Mar 2011}

In summer, weasels are sandy-brown on their backs with light colored bellies and black-tipped tails. Species found in far northern regions molt twice each year, when their fur, except for the tail, changes to white for the winter. They have small heads with long whiskers and small, rounded ears. Necks and bodies are long and slim with short legs. Weasels are found in a variety of habitats from farmland to forested areas, but are often located along an open water source such as streams, rivers, and estuaries. The Colombian weasel has partial webbing of its feet, suggesting a semi-aquatic lifestyle. Long-tailed weasels and Amazon weasels have been observed easily swimming in larger bodies of water.

With their elongated bodies, weasels are able to easily follow prey into burrows, as well as through paths under ground cover such as leaves, snow and ice. Weasels are carnivores, hunting small mammals, birds, insects, and crustaceans. They are generally nocturnal hunters with keen senses of smell and hearing, making them capable predators. The least weasel, with a body between five and ten inches in length, has more biting power than a lion or hyena. A rabbit, its favorite prey, is five to ten times the size and weight of a weasel, but the weasel easily dispatches its prey by gripping the back of the neck to break the spine and kill it. Weasels are excellent climbers, allowing them to pursue prey off the ground.

^{Least weasel, Mustela nivalis by Keven Law, Aug 2008}

^{Least weasel, Mustela nivalis, summer in Alaska by Cecil Sanders, Aug 2008}

Weasel dens are built in burrows abandoned by other animals. A nest of grass and leaves is lined with fur from their prey. Mustelids use a reproductive strategy called embryonic diapause, found in very few mammal species. After conception, the new embryo enters a phase where it remains dormant for a period of time before implanting itself in the uterine wall to begin growth and development. The gestation period can be extended up to a year until conditions are optimal for the survival of both the offspring and the mother. In long-tailed weasels mating takes place in mid to late summer, but babies are born the following spring, when temperatures are warmer and food resources are plentiful and readily available.

Weasels mate in mid to late summer, and young are born the following spring. Kits are blind and deaf for the first two to three weeks after being born, but grow quickly and are weaned between five and six weeks. In most species, both males and females are sexually active before the end of their first summer. In one species, the short-tailed weasel, living in northern areas with short summers, females are sexually mature at two to three weeks while still blind and deaf following birth. Most are sexually mated before they are weaned. Kits will leave the nest to claim their own territory before their first winter.

^{Long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenata, in Seattle Washington by Janis Coralee Leonhardi, Jun 2021}

Most species worldwide are listed as of least concern, with strong populations. An exception is the Colombian weasel, about which very little is known. The first live one was discovered by an amateur naturalist in 2011. There are fewer than a dozen documented animals living in riparian habitats in the cloud forests of Colombia above 5,000 feet. It is thought they are doing well, but too little is known of this relatively new species. The Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or most local nature museums have wonderful displays of weasels and other members of the mustelid family for you to learn more.

Aquatic Insects

Rivers and streams meander, fall, swirl, pool and flow through landscapes based on how their channel has been shaped and filled. Moving water, referred to as a current, goes in different directions and speeds as it flows. Currents are slower on the water’s surface, sides, and bottom due to friction with air, soil and rock. The fastest current is just below the surface where nothing impedes its progress, and the slowest is where the water pushes in all directions due to obstacles in its path.

^{Woodland stream by John Holmes, Getty Images}

Aquatic insects living in these turbulent waters employ a variety of methods to anchor themselves in place to breathe and eat. Most aquatic insect species are in their larval stage and will leave their aquatic environment when they become adults. Some are benthic species living attached to the bottom; some are swimmers commonly found in slower moving water; some live in the swift-moving current.

^{Water Penny by Cliff White; Stonefly larva by Jim Rathert, Riffle beetle by Cliff White, all images courtesy of Missouri Department of Conservation}

Most insects must be able to securely anchor themselves to breathe and eat. The water penny, a flow-adapted insect, uses its whole body, a flattened oval disc, to adhere itself to a rock using suction. With its smooth back and with no protrusions, water easily flows over and around this species. Where the current flows around rocks on the bottom, an area of quiet water forms just behind each rock. The caddisfly builds a case around itself from rocks, sticks, and mud and remains in this quieter area. Stoneflies and riffle beetles use sharp hooks at the ends of their legs to hang onto the bottom substrate even while walking about in the flowing water. Where water pools and currents slow after a sandbar, mayflies, crane flies, and midges live in burrows in the silty bottom.

^{Pseudiron mayfly by Dave Ostendorf, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

Mosquito larva courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation

^{Damselfly nymph by Cliff White, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

For animals with lungs, muscles expand the lungs pulling in air where oxygen can be absorbed into the blood stream and transported to cells in the body. Insects do not have lungs but use air tubes attached to spiracles, openings on the outside of their bodies that can be opened or closed. A fine network of air tubes allow oxygen to be absorbed directly by each cell. Damselfly, mayfly, and stonefly use gills to extract oxygen from flowing water and pump it into their air tubes. Mosquitos and water scorpions use snorkeling, where a breathing tube connected to a spiracle breaks the water’s surface. Water beetle adults trap a bubble of air under their wing covers when they dive. It is held in place by hairs on their bodies and covers the spiracles located along the sides of the abdomen.

^{Caddisfly larva with pebble case by Jim Rathert, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

^{Caddisfly larva with plant fiber case by Jim Rathert, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

In addition to oxygen, water currents bring a steady supply of food downriver and carry away waste. In forested streams, vegetation and decaying animals falling into the water provide a variety of food. Midges are able to collect tiny particles of plants and animals found in slow-moving water. Some species of stonefly and caddisfly are shredders, feeding on vegetation moving past them by chewing it into small bits. Filter feeders, including black fly and riffle beetles, use nets and fans to trap particles from faster-moving currents.

^{Midge fly larva by Cliff White, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

^{Crane fly larva by Jim Rathert, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

In areas exposed to lots of sunlight, algae and aquatic insects are the main food sources. Mayfly, caddisfly, and water pennys scrape algae from rocky surfaces. Other species of stonefly and riffle beetles are predators and use their hooked feet to position themselves in steady currents where they are able to snag other species being swept along. Another predator, the alderfly, burrows its bottom into the streambed to catch prey swimming nearby. Damselfly larva may anchor themselves to the bottom or fill a bladder at their rear end with water and expel it with enough force to propel themselves through the current to snag prey.

^{Alderfly larva courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

Whether the current is fast or slow, flowing through clear areas or obstacles, streams provide insects with numerous places to live. On you next walk along a waterway, consider all that is happening just below the surface.

Sei Whale

The sei (SAY) whale, Balaenoptera borealis, is the third largest rorqual, a group of large baleen whales that feed by straining food from the water. They live 50 to 70 years and grow up to 60 feet in length, weighing 100,000 pounds. They have bluish-gray backs, creamy bellies, a tall, hooked dorsal fin, and a large mouth with 200-400 baleen plates made of keratin. Their skin is often marked with a series of curvy healed scars made by “cookie-cutter” sharks which attach themselves to large species with suction-cup lips hiding sharp teeth that cut out a section of flesh about two inches in diameter to eat.

There are two types of whales, toothed whales and baleen whales which are considerably larger, but have no teeth. Toothed whales and other cetaceans including dolphins and porpoises, have one blowhole leading to the left nasal passage. Baleen whales have both nasal passages open as two blowholes to accommodate their huge size, allowing a much greater air exchange when surfacing. In all cetaceans, muscles are contracted to open a nasal plug in the blowhole allowing them to breathe. When underwater, the muscles are relaxed, blocking the blowhole and preventing the animal from breathing in water. Air sacs immediately below the blowholes allow for creation of long, loud, low-frequency calls within the hearing range of humans. Most calls last less than one second and sound levels are equivalent to standing next to a jack hammer, carrying long distances underwater.

Sei whales are found in temperate oceans around the world, but not in polar or tropical waters. The southern sub-species population is slightly larger than the northern one, and there is no evidence of interbreeding. Current population estimates place a total of 80,000 individuals world-wide, but sei whales prefer deep ocean waters and rarely come near land making placement of tracking devices and accurate estimates difficult. Tagging has been moderately successful, with many lost signals. It is known that they migrate annually, following the available prey and using prevailing currents to move quickly, but exact migration routes and breeding areas are not yet known.

Sei whale feeding by Allison Henry, NOAA

Sei whales generally travel alone or in small groups of up to six individuals. They are one of the fastest swimmers of all ocean species, attaining speeds up to 35mph for short distances. When feeding, they swim on their sides near the surface with one side of their huge mouths open taking in large amounts of water and straining out prey. Their favorite food is copepods, a tiny planktonic crustacean, but they will also consume krill, squid, and small schooling fish such as anchovies, sardines, and mackerel. They may make shallow dives to pursue schools of fish, quietly sinking below the surface; they can stay underwater for five to twenty minutes. Each whale consumes about 1,000 pounds of food daily.

Sei whale mother & calf, by Christin Khan, NOAA, Jun 2014

Sei whales reach sexual maturity between six and twelve years old, and a young adult is about 45 feet in length. Females are slightly larger than males. Gestation is 11 to 13 months, and each female mates once every two to three years. One calf is born in winter. A newborn is about fifteen feet in length and weighs 1500 pounds at birth. Calves remain with their mother for six to nine months before being weaned off its mother’s milk. Males are polygynous where one male has mating rights with several females.

Sei whales were overhunted in the mid-1960s for meat and oil after blue whale and fin whale populations were decimated in earlier years. They were added to the IUCN Red List as endangered in 1970. Their only natural predator is a pack of orcas. Massive die-offs have been recorded in the last fifty years, and evidence suggests the cause is red tides, a harmful algal bloom that severely depletes oxygen levels in large areas and may last for several weeks or months.

Other threats include entanglement in fishing gear, leading to whales dragging the gear for long distances, ultimately tiring them to a point where feeding and breeding are impossible. Climate change affecting ocean water temperatures and currents is altering prey distribution and availability resulting in less successful foraging. Opening more shipping lanes in polar regions along the edges of sei whale territory, another result of climate change, contributes to more vessel strikes. Shipping also increases ocean noise, making long-range communications for all species more difficult; however, the impacts from this on the sei whale population is not well understood.

The sei whale remains a species with more mystery than knowledge. You can learn more about cetaceans in general from your local natural history museum or come to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University to see a full skeleton of a sei whale on display.

Flamingos

The greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus, with its long neck and legs, hooked downward bill, and bright pink plumage can be found on five of the seven continents, not including Australia or Antarctica. Only one of the six species is native to the continental U.S., the American greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber, and its native range encompasses only the far southern portions of Florida. Three additional species are found in the Caribbean and northeastern and southwestern portions of South America, plus two species are native to coastal areas of Europe, Africa , and Asia.

Flamingos are found in all types of shallow water habitats. They forage in both saltwater lakes and coastal lagoons, in addition to freshwater wetlands, ponds, and mudflats. They are able to eat prey found in very alkaline waters that most other avian species cannot tolerate. Feral birds, ones that have escaped captivity and are now breeding in the wild, from the other three species found in North and South America have formed several colonies along the southeastern coast of the U.S.

The name flamingo comes from a Spanish word meaning flame, bright and red in color. Immature birds are gray or brown. They absorb carotene, a reddish-yellow pigment, from their food, which slowly changes their plumage to light pink, deepening to darker shades including reds and oranges. It takes about three years until a bird attains the bright pink adult plumage everywhere except their flight feathers which are jet black and can be seen only when their wings are extended.

^{Greater Flamingo chick in water by JHVEPhoto, Getty Images}

Flamingos have the longest neck and legs of any native bird in the U.S. Wingspans on full-grown adults may reach five feet. Flying in a V-formation, flocks move quickly, with necks extended, taking short, strong wingbeats. Flamingos call is a strong honking, sometimes hard to distinguish from geese, to maintain the group’s cohesion in flight. Webbed feet provide stability on soft sand, mudflats, and in shallow waters along lake bottoms. Flamingos are excellent swimmers, and they use their webbed feet to stabilize their bodies in the water when reaching downward for food growing in deeper lakes and ponds.

^{Flamingo head, by XavierMarchant, Getty Images}

A flamingo’s bill is sharply angled downward in the middle. On most birds, the upper bill is part of the bones of the head, heavier and immovable. On flamingos, this is reversed and the upper bill can be used as a flap against a heavy lower bill. When feeding, the bird lowers its head, turning the bill upside down, sweeping it from side to side through the water. A central groove in the lower bill contains space for a fat tongue, used to push and pull higher volumes of water through the bill. The edges of the bill are lined with rows of horny plates called lamellae that strain out crustaceans, mollusks, and small insects. Flamingos are typically night feeders, resting during the day.

Flamingos roost in single species colonies. They will only breed if they are part of a large group, and breeding occurs for all at the same time. Nest mounds are volcano-shaped, arranged close by one another on a mudflat. Each breeding pair of birds lays only one egg on top of its mound. Parents take turns incubating the egg while the other is foraging. Chicks stay with the parents for four to six weeks after hatching, until they are able to feed themselves. Still unable to forage and in need of protection, all of the chicks in larger colonies may form one group called a creche. The group can be guarded by only a few adults, giving the rest of the colony the opportunity to forage for themselves and bring back food for the creche.

^{Nesting Rose Flamingo with egg in nest, by Artush, Getty Images}

^{Chick and mother, by tane-mahuta, Getty Images}

Toward the end of the 1800s, feather collecting for the millinery markets adversely impacted many bird populations. However, this did not include flamingos because their feathers quickly lose the pink color once they are removed from the bird. Today, flamingo populations around the world are shrinking due to habitat loss. Much of their native habitat is wetland coastal areas being developed. In addition, flamingos do not have the capacity to switch diets, and as more wetlands are drained or polluted, food sources are continually disappearing.

Look for these magnificent birds at your local zoo, or consider a trip to see them in many of the nature areas in southern Florida.

At The Waterhole

Last week, we discovered adaptations that allow elephants to deal with gravity and heat. Asian elephants live mostly in tropical forests that are warm from plenty of sunlight, although very little light reaches through the canopy to the forest floor. Rainfall may be intermittent, and shade-tolerant vegetation changes with a lack or an abundance of water. African savannas have lots of grasslands with a few trees and shrubs. They have distinct wet and dry periods, but grasses grow deep root systems that sustain them throughout the year. African woodlands are more open than Asian forests allowing a variety of trees and shrubs that grow well in full sunlight.

Elephants live in large groups, called herds, led by the strongest adult female. The herd members include all the females plus any males who not yet teenagers. The matriarch knows where to find food and water. She is aggressive when it comes to protecting the rest of the herd and is always the first to confront any threat. Males grow into bulls and will start to fight other males in their teen years. Once this aggression starts, the matriarch will kick the young bull out of the family. Bulls travel alone or together with other bulls, but it is a dangerous time for them because they do not have the support and knowledge of the matriarch for finding food and water.

_{^{The Herd by WLDavies, Getty Images Signature}}

Elephants are old enough to mate in their mid-teens. Pregnancy lasts 18-22 months, and each cow has a baby once every five years until they are in their forties. The herd is very social and several females take care of each calf. Water holes are places where the herd engages in many social activities. Elephants use water to drink, to swim and play in, and to bathe. However, bathing for an elephant means getting dirty, not clean. Elephants stir up the edges of a water hole to create mud to wallow in. Or they will cover themselves with water followed by dirt sprayed on their bodies with their trunks. Dried mud provides cooling from the sun and keeps biting insects away from tender skin. Elephants love water and bathe often, helping to keep skin moisturized.

Lovely mud by bucky_za, Getty Images Signature

Food eaten daily includes about 300 pounds of grass, tree bark, fruit, and other green vegetation. Elephants also need salt to supplement their diet. Their tongues are too short to lick anything not in their mouth, so they use their tusks to dig furrows in the ground and pile up soil and stones. Large stones can be placed into their mouth to lick salt from, and small stones are ground up by their huge molars. Food eaten daily includes about 300 pounds of grass, tree bark, fruit, and other green vegetation.

African elephants are larger than Asian elephants and males are larger than females in all species. Asian elephants average life span is about 80 years in the wild, while African elephants live only 60 years. They are excellent swimmers, often submerging their whole body underwater except for their trunks, which are used as snorkels to breathe. On land, they are slow moving, but can run short distances at better than 20 mph. They use many vocalizations to communicate such as grunts, rumbles, trumpets, screams, and purrs, and they can use their trunks to modulate sounds.

A thousand years ago, ivory was a hot commodity, and hunters exterminated elephants in North Africa. In the last century, after remaining populations were severely depleted by the late 1800s, many countries banned the trade of ivory. Elephants are recovering today, but poaching continues to be a serious threat. As more humans have moved into their native ranges, existing populations have to live in smaller areas. At their rate of food consumption, vegetation does not have enough time to grow back, and herds today are experiencing food shortages. Several conservation organizations are working to provide land for the establishment of wider ranges, care for orphaned elephants, and combat poaching.

You can see and learn more about these wondrous animals at your local zoo or natural history museum.

^{Clockwise above: African bush elephants by designerpoint, Pixabay; Masai Mara elephants by tankbmb, Getty Images; African elephant by Donvanstaden, Getty Images; Friends by cocoparisienne, Pixabay; Asian elephant by miharing, Getty Images}

A Big, Cool One

Elephants are the largest land mammals and they live in a variety of habitats in tropical and subtropical regions. Their native habitat is often savanna, grassland or forest although they can also be found in desert, swamp, and highlands. These areas get twelve hours of sunlight each day, with warm, daily temperatures averaging from the lower 70s to above 100˚F for animals living in the desert. Heat and gravity are two natural factors that affect all large animals, and elephants have some unique methods and body design to compensate for both.

^{Walking in Kruger National Park by Simone Eman, simoneemanphotos}

Elephants have a massive skeleton with solid bones in their feet, legs, hips, and ribs that provide excellent support for all of their weight. Lots of muscles, both large and small, allow easy movement while still protecting their vital organs. But not all of the bones are solid. The skull is honeycombed throughout, so it is light enough that the neck can support the head and allow for many small and precise movements of the trunk, the ears, and the tusks. The brain is small for an animal of this size, but elephants are quick learners, have an excellent memory, and are one of the smartest animals.

^{Elephant’s foot by sboofek, Getty Images}

^{Elephants foot tread by skynavin, Getty Images}

While small animals, such as ants, can hang on to a vertical surface, elephants require a solid set of legs to stand and walk on. They actually stand on the tips of their toes, located along the front edge of the foot. The center and back of the foot is one large pad behind and under the toes that cushions each step and helps to carry their weight. The large, round flat of the foot spreads the weight evenly over a larger area, and their soles have treads to provide traction on slippery or uneven surfaces.

^{Elephant ears by Harvey Sapir, Pexels}

Heat from the sun, and from the exertion of the muscles performing under the tremendous weight of the body, must be dissipated efficiently. This task is handled by the elephant’s ears, which are very large and very thin. Hundreds of blood vessels run through each ear close to the skin to radiate heat away from the body. The blood, now cooled, can be circulated throughout the body. Skin over the rest of the body is thicker, but there is little to no fat underneath, nor is there any fur or hair covering the outside to trap heat. The skin also has many wrinkles creating much more surface area than smooth skin, allowing more heat to be lost to cooler air and water.

^{Celery anyone…by eugen_z, Getty Images}

An elephant’s trunk is a nose-arm-hand all wrapped into one. They can pick up large and heavy objects as well as being able to manipulate the sensitive tip to grab tiny and delicate objects. To help control the heat, they often will suck in a trunkful of water and using the end of the trunk like a shower head, spray all of the water across their body to wet down and cool off. Similarly, they can snuffle up a load of dust to spray across dry or wet skin to create a coating to help keep away biting insects and provide protection from the sun.

Elephants are built to move easily and efficiently in their environment, and they have several methods and adaptations to deal with their size and the heat. Next week we will discover more about family life and the lands they live in.

The Elephant Trunk

An elephant’s trunk is an amazing body part. It is a 300 pound nose-arm-hand about seven feet long. It contains 50,000 muscles, but no bones or cartilage, making it strong and flexible. A vast array of nerves controls it. Elephants use their trunks for a variety of tasks including:
• smelling an approaching rainstorm from 150 miles away
• locating food by smell including grass, branches, and fruit
• lifting objects up to 400 pounds
• reaching food 20 feet off the ground
• using it as a snorkel when swimming underwater
• using the top and bottom lip to pick up a single seed off the ground
• sucking up to 2.5 gallons of water and squirting it into their mouths
• sucking up water to squirt over their backs to cool off
• curling it around large quantities of food to place in their mouths
• controlling the shape and size of the nostril to modulate sounds
• snorting dirt to spray over their backs
• picking up and throwing objects in defense
• entwining with another’s trunk for a friendly hug

Duck Potato Salad

Walking around a freshwater marsh, we can observe dozens of plants and animals. Daily sunlight provides hours of energy, but it is only usable by the plants, which create their own food in a process called photosynthesis. Plants may be fully submerged, floating, or living above the water’s surface, but all are vital components of the food supply.

^{Marsh panorama by Beyond_Invisible, Getty Images}

Just as animals breathe, plants also need to exchange gases, taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. Plants living in a marsh, where they are fully or partially saturated with water, have developed several strategies for the gas exchange process. Spongy tissue is a universal adaptation of marsh plants. Both stems and leaves contain large airspaces surrounding food producing cells which are well distributed throughout the plant. Airspaces also keep the plants lightweight and enable stems, leaves and flowers to float on or reach above the water’s surface.

Floating wisps of green algae are primitive plants that have been on earth for over two billion years and are the basic food source for all life in the marsh. Millions of microscopic animals, crustaceans, insects, and small fish depend directly on green algae for their food. Green algae lack stems, leaves and flowers, but grow as long chains of nearly identical cells. Some algae are microscopic, some can be easily observed as green strands on or below the water’s surface and some grow to several hundred feet in length.

^{Duckweed forest pond by Sunsju, Aug 2019}

Duckweeds refer to a group of tiny, flowering plants that float on the surface of wetland areas. They reproduce by dividing their cells. This is a rapid process taking from 16 to 48 hours. In optimal growing conditions, with plenty of sunlight and nutrients available, the surface area of a pond can be covered in a very short period of time. Several species of pond plants grow long, narrow leaves with soft, nourishing cells providing a easy-to-eat and tasty treat for marsh dwellers. With large airspaces, these plants are able to stay afloat no matter how long they grow.

^{Spatterdock by Kirill Ignatyev, Jul 2011}

Plants with floating leaves, such as spatterdock, must have a method for preventing excess water from entering leaves and stems when they exchange gases. Plants have stomata, openings in the leaf where gases are exchanged. In terrestrial plants, stomata are located on the undersides of leaves to prevent rain from entering the opening. Floating leaves have stomata on the upper side of the leaf, providing far less exposure to water.

^{Water marigold by Gennady Alexandrov, May 2014}

Water marigold has two types of leaves, one that grows on the stem above the water’s surface and another that grows on the submerged stems. Leaves growing in air take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen through their stomata. Submerged leaves have very thin cell walls and exchange the same gases directly with the water surrounding them.

^{Arrowhead with bulb, -duck potato’, lower right, by Andriy Nekrasov, Getty Images}

Arrowhead is firmly anchored in the bottom of ponds, and has stems, leaves, and flowers growing above the surface. It reproduces by both seeds grown from pollinated flowers and bulbs grown on submerged stems. Bulbs remain submerged, attached to the stem and grow until they are mature enough to anchor themselves in the bottom silt and start another plant. While growing, the bulbs are very tasty and are a favorite food of many duck species, earning the nickname duck potatoes.

^{Wild celery, Vallisneria americana, by Schizoform, Jun 2022}

Wild celery produces both male and female flowers. Female flowers are attached to long stems that float on the water’s surface. Male flowers break off underwater and float to the surface unattached, where they are blown around until they meet a female flower, transferring pollen by contact. The pollinated flower coils downward back under the surface where the seeds develop and are released into the water to start a new plant wherever they land on the silt bottom.

Marsh plants come in many forms and each is well adapted to the unique conditions of the habitat in which they live.

Boreal Forest in Winter

The boreal forest is the largest tract of woodland on earth covering 11% of all land area, half again as large as the Amazon rainforest. It stores 30% of the sequestered carbon on earth. The area also contains a mosaic of wet meadows, ponds, lakes, marshes, and bogs interlaced among the trees. Tree species include many conifers, dominated by spruce, plus aspen, birch, willow and alder. The animal life is abundant, with every species that was there before European settlement still remaining.

^{Boreal Forest panorama by Mliberra, getty Images}

The boreal forest is distinguished by short, hot, wet summers and long, dry, cold winters. When the last glaciers retreated northward, many holes and fissures were left behind. As the ice melted, all of these depressions were filled with water. The underlying geology is mostly granite shield, a rock layer that holds the water in and contains few minerals that dissolve in water, yielding very clear water that does not promote algae or bacteria growth. Most lake life is found in the shallow, warmer edges which also provide support to nearly all of the land-based fauna.

^{From upper left clockwise: Alder tree by Mantonature, Getty Images Signature; Spruce trees by Hannu Koskela, Getty Images; Willow tree by smarko , Pixabay; Aspen trees by Adamisovitsch, Getty Images}

Winter time presents many challenges including less sunlight, colder temperatures, less available water, less food and shelter, and increased severe storms. Animals that are active daily have higher energy requirements in winter. They must often change their dietary sources to whatever is available in winter. Grey squirrels and beavers cache food during warmer periods. Birds eat foods higher in calories such as nuts, seeds, dried fruit, and insects found under tree bark. When changes are consistent from year to year, species develop adaptations to meet the requirements of each season and are able to live comfortably throughout the year.

Shelter becomes not only a place to hide from predators, but also provides protection from weather extremes. Snow of different thicknesses and weight covers the landscape. Snow is also a great insulator, keeping cold winds away from exposed skin. There is normally a layer of air between the ground and the snow cover immediately above. Temperatures in this space are warmer than the exposed air above the snow creating a winter habitat that is vitally important for many species. Mice and voles create burrows under the snow where they can huddle together for added warmth. Similarly, air pockets surrounded by a heavy growth of conifer needles create spaces above the snow cover for birds and some larger mammals to shelter. And many larger species will nestle into the snow pack to shelter from storms and wind.

^{Spruce grouse by Impr2003, Getty Images}

^{Willow ptarmigan by Alex Berger, Mar 2022}

Spruce grouse, Canachites canadensis, and willow ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus, are not able to fly more than several yards. They grow feathers on their feet to insulate them and aid in traction. Grouse use the air layer at ground level to shelter in.

^{Portrait of a snowshoe hare by Jim Cumming, Getty Images}

^{Canada lynx by Carol Gray, Getty Images}

Ptarmigan, along with snowshoe hares, Lepus americanus, and short-tailed weasels, Mustela erminea, all change color to pure white to hide from predators. Snowshoe hare and Canada lynx, Lynx canadensis, have very large feet that aid in walking on snow without sinking in. Arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus, are winter specialists with compact bodies and short legs and ears that limit their exposure to cold, and large, furry paws that enable them to walk on top of the snowpack. With their long, bushy tails wrapped around their heads, they can withstand winds and temperatures to fifty below zero.

^{Stayin’ warm, Arctic fox by PEDRE, Getty Images Signature}

You can learn more about this cold but wondrous habitat by searching online for boreal forest, referring to the southern portions of the habitat, or taiga, referring to the northern portions. Also, look for information concerning seasonal adaptations for species in your own area, or visit a local natural history museum such as the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum in Lisle, Illinois.

Junco Winter Adaptations

Juncos spend the winter spread across the United States. They spend summers at breeding areas in southern Canada, and in fall males migrate to the northern states while females migrate farther south. Males have several adaptations that allow them to more easily survive in colder climates, and allow them to return early to breeding areas to claim the best territory for attracting a mate among the females that come back a few weeks later.

^{Male dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis by Christian Gott, dec 2022}

^{Female dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis by Joseph Higbee, Dec 2014}

Junco males are small, round-bodied birds with a slate gray back and are larger and weigh more than females. According to Bergmann’s Rule, large bodies have a smaller surface area relative to their volume, and are therefore able to retain more heat than longer or skinnier bodies. Being able to retain more heat for longer periods, an average-sized male junco can go two hours longer without food than an average female, and a large male may go more than ten hours longer between meals. This can be an essential factor when living through a colder period.

^{A cozy tree cavity by Steve Valasek, Apr 2014}

^{Accommodations for one… by Hedera Baltica, May 2016}

Tree cavities provide excellent places to shelter in winter. At night and in severe weather, juncos seek a small, tight space big enough for a single bird that provides protection from wind and moisture. During daytime hours, while foraging, juncos can often be found in conifer trees whose year-round needles provide a windbreak and a place to remain out of sight of predators.

^{Male junco with fluffed-out feathers by Ken Gibson, Dec 2016}

Juncos have a normal body temperature of 107˚F, well above the average outside temperature on a winter day which could be between -10˚F and +20˚F. Maintaining body heat requires a high-caloric diet to create the heat and resources to not allow the heat to escape. Birds have muscular control over their feathers and are able to fluff them, trapping air next to their skin. Preening is a daily activity where oil secreted from a gland above the tail is rubbed on all of their feathers providing a moisture barrier that keeps water, snow, and cold winds away from their skin. Both feathers and trapped air make up two layers of insulation that work efficiently to retain body heat.

During extreme weather, it may be advantageous to remain sheltered and inactive when the amount of calories burned to get a meal is more than the calories in the meal. When sheltering for longer periods, juncos may intentionally lower their body temperatures a few degrees, entering a state of torpor. This state lasts for only a few hours, but saves enough energy so that the bird does not need to forage for an extended period during a day. Using muscular control, birds can generate body heat by contracting and releasing their muscles, similar to shivering in mammals, and bring their body temperatures back to normal and resume daily activities.

^{Juncos feeding on ground by mwms1916, Apr 2015}

^{Juncos feeding on ground feeder by synspectrum, Nov 2015}

Northern U.S. flocks of juncos in winter are 70% or more males, while most females spend winters in the southern U.S. This is also true for several other species that migrate with juncos including tree sparrows, song sparrows, and mourning doves. Juncos will be leaving in late winter to return to breeding grounds across Canada, but for the coming few months we will certainly enjoy their presence in our area.

Snake Defense

Snakes, with over 3,000 species worldwide, are one of the largest groups of reptiles. They are found on every continent except Antarctica and live in every type of habitat including freshwater and saltwater. They have numerous enemies and have developed defensive strategies enabling them to survive and prosper.

^{Catching a snake on the wing by CuriousLog, Jun 2007}

^{Red-shouldered hawk with snake by Don Loarie, Mar 2018}

^{Great Blue Heron eating snake by C Watts, Jan 202}2

Snakes must deal with threats from a wide range of animals. Bird species that prey on snakes include raptors, ravens, egrets , and storks. Nocturnal hunters, including owls, have excellent sight in low-light conditions and often hunt by spotting movement among foliage. Likewise, during daytime hours, red-tailed hawks and eagles can spot movement on the ground while soaring. Snakes are normally line-of-sight hunters, and are often unaware of threats from above, giving avian predators a distinct advantage.

_{^{American crocodile, Crocodylus acutus by Florida Fish and Wildlife, Feb 2021; Wolverine by Maia C, Aug 2012; Skunk by D Fletcher, May 2016}}

Most mammal predators are larger, more agile, and faster. Badger, wolverine, and racoon are all excellent climbers and may hunt from an elevated perch. Wolverine and skunk are also burrowers that will dig out their prey from underground. Snakes living in saltwater and freshwater environments are eaten by predators such as crocodiles and snapping turtles. In addition, some larger snake species regularly hunt smaller snakes.

^{Copperhead on dead leaves by Abbott Handerson Thayer, Mar 2022}

Snakes use a number of non-aggressive strategies to avoid confrontation and escape. Their best defense is to remain hidden, using colors and patterns to break up the outline of their body, allowing the snake to blend with the background foliage and be overlooked by any predators. Another passive strategy is balling, involving compressing their body into a tight coil or ball, typically with the head tucked in to protect this most vulnerable area. Playing dead is often an effective means to escape predation, honed to perfection by the Western hognose snake. This snake convulses its body, rolls onto its back, and lets its tongue loll out of its mouth. It may vomit or spew blood, release fecal matter or musk, all in its attempt to convince a potential predator that it is already dead and no longer appetizing.

^{Timber rattlesnake balled and hidden by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2022}

Mimicry is a development that has taken place in some species over long periods of time. Batesian mimicry is when a harmless species has evolved the coloration of a more dangerous species to fool a predator into leaving it alone. Scarlet kingsnakes of the southeastern United States are quite harmless but look very much like Eastern coral snakes, a venomous species in that same area. Auditory mimicry involves creating sounds used by more dangerous snakes. Fox snakes, found in deciduous forests, often vibrate their tails in leaf litter, making a buzzing noise very similar to the sounds made by rattlesnakes living in the same area.

^{Scarlet kingsnake by FWC Fish & Wildlife Research Institute, May 2015}

^{Eastern coral snake by FWC Fish & Wildlife Research Institute, Sep 2014}

Snakes often use one or more methods of intimidation. Bright display colors are found among many venomous species and serve as a warning to potential predators that this snake is dangerous. Another form of intimidation involves a snake inflating its body or a body part to make it look bigger. The puff adder inflates its whole body by filling its lung with air. Cobras hold their heads high and flare out an extra fold of skin on either side of their heads, commonly called “hooding.” Intimidation may also involve auditory cues including the rattling of a snake’s tail and the hiss emitted by cobras as they bring up their heads.

When the above strategies do not allow the snake to escape, most species will not hesitate to strike. Several species do not bite, striking with the nose or an open mouth; however, all venomous snakes will bite in self-defense, although they may not inject venom. A few species are able to spit venom, used purely as an act of self-defense, although if the venom targets an eye or nasal passage, the results can be extremely painful.

Snakes are some of the most interesting species with a lifestyle very different from our own. They have many strategies for keeping themselves safe from wild predators, and will be around for us to observe, learn about, and be fascinated by.

Sloths

Sloth, a word used in English for over 400 years to mean slow, was used in the 17th century to name six species of slow-moving mammals native to the tropical rainforests of Central America and northern South America. Those in the genus Choloepus have two toes on their forelimbs and include Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, and Hoffman’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni. In a second genus, Bradypus, they have three toes on their forelimbs and include the pygmy three-toed sloth, Bradypus pygmaeus, the maned sloth, Bradypus torquatus, the pale-throated sloth, Bradypus tridactylus, and the brown-throated sloth, Bradypus variegatus.

^{Hoffmann’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni, by Leyo, Jul 2008}

^{Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, at London Zoo by Dick Culbert, Nov 2007}

Sloths are 24″ to 30″ in length, weighing 8-17 pounds. They have rounded heads with tiny ears, and their forelimbs are almost twice as long as their hind limbs. Three-toed species have a small, stubby tail. Limbs are adapted for hanging and grasping, while strong claws help to support the weight of the animal. About half their body weight is from the undigested food in their stomach, which is constantly filled. Sloths have an unusual number of vertebrae in their necks, either six or nine compared to most mammal species that have seven. This allows them to almost look backwards, being able to turn through a 270˚ arc.

^{The most common sloth is the Brown-throated sloth, Bradypus variegatus, shown here in its native habitat at Cahuita National Park in southeast Costa Rica… by Christian Mehlführer, Feb 2007}

Everything about the sloth is slow: their daily routine, their feeding, their movements, and their metabolism. They are nocturnal, eating at night and spending most of the day hanging motionless, while sleeping. Their low-energy, leaf-based diet supports a slow-paced lifestyle. Sloths are primarily folivores, feeding on leaves and fruit of several tree species. They have a multi-chambered stomach with symbiotic bacteria to help digest fibrous vegetation in a slow process that can take several weeks to fully process a single meal.

^{Pale-throated sloth, Bradypus tridactylus, by Fernando Flores, Apr 2013}

^{Pygmy three-toed sloth, Bradypus pygmaeus, by Bernal Saborio, Jan 2017}

Sloths move very slowly, even when threatened, averaging just 13′ a minute. They rarely leave their arboreal habitat, except to defecate. This happens only once every eight days, when they go down to the ground. They are extremely awkward and exposed during these short periods. However, sloths are agile swimmers and often use this ability to move between locations. Having a low metabolism allows them to hold their breath underwater for up to 40 minutes. Slow movements also provide protection from predators that hunt by sight, looking for movement among the trees, including ocelots, jaguars, and harpy eagles.

^{Observe the tint of the green algae in the hair of this three-toed sloth, genus Bradypus, by HenryAlien, Aug 2008}

Sloths have long, shaggy hair that is home to a host of other organisms. Each strand is grooved, able to retain rain water, and hosts a symbiotic green algae. The algae gets shelter and water from the hair and provides nutrients to its host by absorption through the sloth’s skin. The algae is also a source of food for several other species including mosquitos, ticks, mites, beetles, and several moth species whose entire lifecycle depends on sloths. When a sloth goes down to the forest floor to defecate, female moths lay their eggs in the dung. Moth larvae feed and pupate in the dung, leaving several months later to fly up into the trees to find a mate in the sloth’s hair and begin a new cycle of life.

^{It is easy to imagine the grasping and defensive possibilities presented by these claws of Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, by Andy, Dec 2018}

Sloths have several predators, but their long, sharp claws make formidable weapons if they are attacked. However, their biggest threats come from poaching, deforestation, and electric wires as more forest acreage is being opened to development. Habitat destruction is a serious threat to the world’s rainforests, and supporting efforts to slow down or stop this process provides the best assistance for sloths and other rainforest species. You can observe these unique and interesting animals at many zoos, or learn more at your local natural history museum, including the South American display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University.

Arctic Adaptations

The Arctic circle will experience its coldest time of year this month, as the sun does not rise in the visible sky between October and March. Animals that live in this part of the world have developed many adaptations for living easily and comfortably in these extreme conditions.

Most arctic animals are either very small or very large. Small animals, like arctic foxes and arctic hares, easily burrow under snow and ice to create comfortable dens. Tight entrances and long passages help keep air trapped under a thick layer of snow that acts as insulation, minimizing contact with the much colder external air. Body heat from the den’s occupants warms the temperature even further. Large animals also use dens including ringed seals and polar bears.

_{Polar bear on ice pack by Christopher Michel, Jul 2015; Musk Ox by Malcolm Manner, Mar 2013; Moose & frozen sagebrush by Steven Robinson, Oct 2017}

Larger animals have a high body volume to surface area ratio, as is found in the shape of a ball. Internal heat is generated relative to body volume, and it is lost relative to surface area. Large, tubby animals including polar bears, musk oxen, and moose generate lots of heat while losing very little. Other adaptations help maintain this balance of heat and loss.

Shaking polar bear by TambakoTheJaguar, Mar 2016

Thick, hollow fur/hair traps air inside each strand as well as underneath its heavy layers. Paws are covered in thick fur for stability, grip, and warmth. Long, furry tails can be used as blankets to wrap around bodies and noses. Oil secreted from special glands coat outer layers of fur, hair, feathers, and skin protecting the animal from direct contact with freezing waters. In addition, oil repels water so that it quickly runs off when the animal is on land, keeping them dryer and less exposed to cold air wicking away body heat.

Huddling fur seals by Michael Sale, Nov 2006

Huddling reindeer by Ben Townsend, Nov 2005

Polar bears, arctic foxes, walruses, seals, and musk oxen all have blubber, a thick accumulation of body fat just below the skin layer. This prevents cold from penetrating the body cavities that contain vital organs. It can also be utilized for energy for movement or to create additional body heat. Huddling is another method used to prevent cold from getting to the center of a mass. Used by musk oxen, arctic foxes, walruses, seals, and arctic hares, staying close with a large group is warm and comfortable.

Reindeer, also known as caribou, are known by their long noses. Air follows a twisty route through the nasal passage before reaching the lungs. Interior walls contain many blood vessels close to the surface that warm the passing air up to seventy degrees before it enters the lungs. Warm blood running through arteries from the heart distributes body heat. By the time it reaches an animal’s extremities, it has cooled and not much body heat can be lost. Reindeer have countercurrent vascular systems where veins containing cool blood returning to the body’s core run adjacent to arteries with warm blood. The colder veins absorb heat so the body core stays warmer.

Arctic fox staying warm by Marc Dumont, Feb 2015

Polar bear portrait by Peter Kaminski, Jan 2005

Extremities are one body area where heat is easily lost and exposure to cold can be damaging or deadly. Arctic foxes and arctic hares have shorter ears, noses, limbs, and snouts than species in the same families living in temperate weather zones. Ringed seals lack any external ears. Musk oxen have short legs and tiny ears, as do polar bears. Many of these adaptations can be viewed in the wild, or at your local zoo. Natural history museums also have displays where we can learn about many cold-adapted species.

Why Do Woodpeckers Peck Wood?

Some central North America bird species, including chickadees, woodpeckers, nuthatches, and sapsuckers chisel cavities in dead or dying trees to create shelter and to find food. Many of these birds are year-round inhabitants, and their efforts are easier to observe during late autumn and winter when there are few leaves to obscure our view. Today we will investigate how beak sizes, beak shapes, and several other adaptations contribute to woodpecker woodworking skills.

^{_{Pictures above clockwise from top left: Yellow-bellied sapsucker by Keith Williams, May 2015; White-breasted nuthatch by Canopic, Feb 2021; Red-Breasted nuthatch by Doug Greenberg, Sep 2018; Black-capped chickadee by CCPoor, Mar 2012}}

Woodpecker beaks are thick and sturdy, with a chisel-like tip to cut away wood in small chips. The hard-hitting tip exerts about 1200 Gs of force up to twenty times each second. This amount of force is equivalent to a human hitting their head against a brick wall at 16mph. A human brain floats inside the skull surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. When our head stops suddenly the brain continues moving forward until it is stopped by the skull. If the force is hard enough, this may result in a concussion. A woodpecker’s brain fits snugly inside its skull and moves and stops in conjunction with skull movement. Inside the skull, the bone is spongy, absorbing energy from the brain moving after the skull stops, managing the impact without harm.

Pileated woodpecker started a new cavity by Peter Stevens, Jan 2020

Other bodily adaptations also help to control and dissipate the energy resulting from pecking activities. A woodpeckers top beak overhangs the bottom beak, forcing pecking vibrations downward, away from the skull and through the muscles to the rib cage. Additional ribs are present at the top of the rib cage, attaching strong muscles to the skull that assist in managing the vibrations.

Hairy woodpecker by Jerry McFarland, Jun 2014

A woodpecker’s body is held very steady by feet that are adapted to gripping in a vertical position, pulling the body tight to the trunk. At the same time, the pygostyle, a set of fused bones located at the base of the backbone with strong muscles running the length of the tail, allow the bird to stiffen the tail and wedge it against the tree trunk. Claws, feet, and tail provide strong structural support as the bird works to chisel out a cavity from solid wood.

Red-bellied woodpecker gripping tree with braced tail by Jim Mullhaupt, Jul 2014

A woodpecker’s eyes contain two additional organs not usually found in other bird species. The pecten and choroid surround the sides and back of the eye socket. They are filled with fluid right before pecking is started to compress the eyeball into the socket and minimize all vibrations affecting the eyes as the bill strikes wood. Additionally, an extra thick nictating membrane, the clear, third eyelid present in all birds, helps protect the eyes from flying chips.

Smaller woodpecker species, including the downy woodpecker, have beaks with less of a chisel shape and more of a point. The beak is used to punch through thin bark layers and pick out small insects from tunnels running under the tree bark. Insects living inside grass, weed stems, and galls can be easily extracted by a finely pointed beak.

Downy woodpecker on grass by Adam Buzzo, Feb 2018

Woodpeckers provide a vital role in forest habitats. Whether a species migrates or not, most will likely change locations for better food sources, warmer weather, or breeding at one or more times during the year. Each time they move, they create a new nesting cavity. As old cavities are abandoned, there are 40 or more other species waiting to use these cavities for shelter, protection, or hunting. As you take your winter walks, be on the lookout for active cavities among the woodland trees in your area – and the species that are actually using them!

_{Nesting northern flicker by Dagny Gromer, Apr 2021}

_{Nesting wren in woodpecker cavity by Rick Cameron, May 2010}

^{Nesting starling in woodpecker cavity by Rick Leche, Apr 2008}

Happy Thanksgiving 2022

Wishing all of my readers wonderful holidays with friends and family, plentiful hunting, filled feeders, dry & warm shelter, fresh water, and clear skies for traveling to visit distant sites and wonders.

Discover-Nature will be back next week for more!

^{_{Clockwise above: Goldfinch with sunflower delight by C.W., Jul 2021; Treat for a friend by Jo Zimney Photos, Jan 2020; Barley bonanza by Marci Verch, Sep 2020; White-breasted nuthatch berry blend by Kurayba, Oct 2017; Chippie surprise by Jo Zimney Photos, Sep 2018}}

Desert Habitat, pt.3

In the past two blogs, we have explored deserts and the plants which inhabit them. Animals native to these habitats have general adaptations for coping with temperature extremes, aridity, and finding water, food, and shelter. Strategies include hunting during cooler hours including at dawn, dusk, or overnight; obtaining water from sources other than standing water; burrowing underground to avoid temperature spikes and solar radiation; ability to conserve water in their body; ability to dissipate body heat; and being well-camouflaged. Look for each of these adaptations in the following species that live in our desert regions.

Greater roadrunner, Geococcyx californianus, by Tony Cyphert, Sep 2018

Ord’s Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys ordii, by Andy Teucher, Jun 2005

The greater roadrunner, Geococcyx californianus, can only fly for several seconds at a time, but can reach speeds up to 17mph when running. They hunt early in the morning, retiring to shade when temperatures heat up mid-morning. Water requirements are met from foods including grass and prickly pear cactus, plus prey that includes lizards, scorpions, and rattlesnakes. Roadrunners do not urinate, but can excrete salt and save the water. They have an un-feathered area under their chins used to dissipate body heat. Ord’s kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii, is another species that gets all of their water requirements from the seed they eat. Individuals live in underground burrows, coming out only at night to feed. They conserve water in their bodies and do not sweat or pant. They have many predators, but with a 9-foot jump and excellent hearing, they are hard to catch. Seeds are collected and stored in their burrows, and they will gain 50% more water from the underground humidity before being eaten.

Horned Toad, Phrynosomasp., by TJFrom AZ, May 2009

Gila monster, Heloderma suspectum , by Karla Kishinami, Apr 2012

Horned toads, Phrynosoma spp., are small, ant-eating lizards with thick scales to conserve water and deter predators. To escape a predator, these animals can squirt a directed stream of blood from their eyes up to five feet away. They are sandy-colored with undefined outlines allowing them to easily hide amid rocky outcrops. Normally active during the day, they can retreat to burrows or under rocks if temperatures become too hot. During winter, horned toads will spend a period of inactivity, called brumation, in underground burrows. The Gila monster, Heloderma suspectum, is another lizard with armor protected skin marked with black and pink coloration that camouflages them well in sandy soils. They shelter from daytime heat under rocks and shrubs, emerging in early morning or evening to hunt small mammals, lizards, insects, and bird eggs. One of only two venomous reptiles in North America, their venom adversely affects their prey’s nervous system. The short, thick tail stores water in fatty tissue for use when needed.

Tarantula, Aphonopelma sp., by Saguaro National Park, Nov 2020

Western coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus, by Ashley Wahlberg, Apr 2016

The tarantula, Aphonopelma spp., shelters in deep burrows lined with silk to prevent the sand from caving in. They are nocturnal hunters of insects, arthropods, and small lizards with a bite that delivers a small amount of venom to stun their prey. Venom immediately starts to break down tissue to liquify the meat, allowing the spider to use sucking mouth parts to draw in its meal. The Western coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus, is brightly colored with red-white-black-white banding and venom that is twice as deadly as most rattlesnakes. They are very secretive, living under rocks or buried in the sand. Coming out at night or on some overcast days, they hunt for lizards and other snakes. Venom causes rapid paralysis and respiratory failure, although due to their small size and small amount of venom injected, they are not a threat to humans.

Like many environments, a healthy desert community exists when plants, animals, and habitat are all present and undisturbed. With much of the life in deserts underground, walking off trails and driving off roads can negatively impact what is under the surface. Removing plants and rocks used for water and shelter is equally damaging. I encourage you to get out, observe, and enjoy this unique habitat, or research many of the fun and interesting adaptations at a local natural history museum.

^{Pictures above clockwise: Bark scorpion by Josh More, May 2014; Cactus wren by Mick Thompson, Feb 2019; Jackrabbit, by Mark Gunn, Mar 2014; Javelina, Sonora Desert, by Richard Bonser, Jan 2005; Tarantula hawk wasp by Jim Mulhaupt, May 2010; Sonoran mud turtle by Grigory Heaton, Sep 2022; Round tailed ground squirrel by Wendy Miller, May 2022; Hoary bat by Michael Pennay, Sep 2009; Cactus deermouse by J.N.Stuart, Oct 2011}

Desert Habitats, pt.2

Pequop Mountain foothills, Great Basin Desert, Nevada by Matthew Roth, Apr 2016

Big sagebrush, Artimesia tridentata by RCWinton, Aug 2008

There are four major deserts in North America. The Great Basin runs from central Idaho to northern Arizona. It is a high altitude plateau, with very cold winters, mild summers, and few plant species characterized by big sagebrush, Artimesia tridentata.

The Mohave Desert, a small area covering southern Nevada and southeastern California, is known for its cold, rainy winter season resulting in hard freezes leaving little water available. The Joshua tree, Yucca brevifolia, a yucca variety growing above 3000′, is the tallest plant in the area.

Joshua tree, Yucca brevifolia, by Melissa Delzio, May 2011

The Chihuahuan Desert, covering the high altitudes of northern Mexico ,is subject to hard freezes from arctic winds scouring its surface. Winter rains occasionally occur supporting a rich diversity of low shrubs and small cacti.

The Sonoran Desert, covering southern Arizona and the Baja Peninsula, has high and low altitudes, hot to mild temperatures, and periodic rainfalls. The winter season, with mild temperatures, does not limit the plant and animal diversity as much as in the other three, colder deserts. The Sonoran Desert, which includes several habitat types, supports a rich variety of species including 2000+ plants, 350+ birds, 100 reptiles, and 30 native fishes.

Desert plants exhibit many similar features that make them well-adapted to the hot, dry conditions of their native habitat. Most are succulents, plants with thick, fleshy stems to retain water for use during hot, dry periods. Plants often have spines in place of leaves to reduce the surface area exposed to wind and heat, greatly reducing water loss from evaporation. Spines also add a layer of protection to prevent animals from eating the plant. Stems are green, containing chlorophyll and water, and this is where photosynthesis takes place. Bloom periods and pollination occur during winter or nighttime when cooler temperatures prevail.

Creosote bush, Larrea tridentata, in flower by Malcom Manners, Apr 2017

Century plant, Agave americana, by J.Maughn, Mar 2020

Several distinctive native species characterize North American deserts including cacti, succulents, and other plant varieties with spines. The creosote bush, named for its distinctive antiseptic smell, grows three to nine feet tall and has small yellow flowers. This plant grows in colonies of cloned bushes which may live for long periods as epitomized by the King Clone of the Mohave Desert, estimated to be about 12,000 years old. The century plant, another long-lived plant, is a species of agave noted for its large cluster of wide leaves with spiny edges. The plant may live up to 30 years, but flowers only once, then dies.

^{Clockwise from top: Prickly pear by Fishfoot, Mar 2018; Prickly pear buds by Diandra Rodriguez, Nov 2011; Prickly pear cacturs in bloom by Stepan Mazurov, May 2009; Prickly pear cactus glochids by Tracie Hall, Nov 2017}

Often seen cacti include the prickly pear cactus which is actually a group of several species all native to North America. Modified stems, called pads, are often mistaken as leaves. These store water, photosynthesize food and sugars, and produce flowers. All species grow long, single spines in addition to glochids, clusters of very fine, tiny spines. Glochids are often not noticeable but can be easily detached if brushed against and once lodged in the skin are painful and difficult to remove. The saguaro cactus is another common plant. Its distinctive shape, with a tall central column and “arms” growing at right angles, is easily recognizable as one of the Sonoran Desert’s native species. It is the largest cactus in North America, growing to over 40′ high, and living 100 years or more. White, waxy flowers open only at night to attract bats, its preferred pollinator.

Saguaro cactus by Ralph Earlandson, Apr 2017

Many natural history museums have excellent displays of plants and animals from world-wide desert biomes, including one of my favorites, the North American desert display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum. In my blog next week, I will introduce some of the notable animals and their adaptations to desert life.

Desert Habitat, pt.1

A biome is a type of global habitat characterized by temperature, rainfall, latitude, elevation, and wind pattern. Plants, which are unable to move about, are used to characterize each type of biome, and are well-adapted to their native habitat. The desert biome is the driest habitat found on earth. In a desert, plants are widely spaced and are adapted to life with little or no moisture except for annual periods when brief rains may be heavy, sparse, or not occur at all. Even within these harsh conditions, plants may be present supporting a rich diversity of species.

_{Clockwise above: Hidden Valley, Joshua Tree solitude by Don Graham, Apr 2013; Sonoran Desert sunset by Jasper Nance, May 2009; Sonoran Desert layers by Art DiTommaso, Apr 2020; Mohave Desert by Melissa Delzio, May 2011}

A common factor of all deserts is the aridity or lack of moisture. Aridity can be determined by how much water is available in the habitat combined with the rates of evaporation from heat, radiation, and wind exposure. Another consideration in determining aridity is how much moisture the air can hold. Neither extremely hot nor extremely cold air easily retains moisture. Freely running water is only available in the desert for the briefest period of time immediately following a rainfall, a scarce and unpredictable event.

Deserts form in areas where dry air predominates. Understanding how weather influences the Earth’s surface helps to identify where to find the world’s desert regions. At the equator, air is warmed by direct sunlight causing it to rise and absorb large amounts of water from the oceans. When the warm air mass encounters cooler air at higher altitudes, it spreads out both northward and southward. Cooler air causes the absorbed moisture to condense into rain in tropical latitudes. The outward moving air mass, now dryer and cooler, also begins to fall back to the earth’s surface, picking up heat from the sun’s radiation and the hot ground. Air masses generally descend and move back towards the equator around 30˚ latitude, which is where many deserts occur.

Rain shadow on leeward side of mountains on Oahu by Loren Javier, Jun 2010

Exploring Greenland’s grass and Dry shrub vegetation by Eugene Kaspersky, Jul 2016

Deserts can also be formed from rain shadows and temperature extremes. As prevailing winds encounter mountains, air is forced up the windward side and flows down the leeward side. As air rises, it cools, once again condensing any moisture into rain which falls on the windward side. Dry air coming over the mountain forms a rain shadow that leaves little moisture for the habitats on the leeward slopes. Temperature extremes occur in both hot and cold regions. Dry, hot air descending from the tropics form warm deserts. Cold, dry air from polar winds form cold deserts such as those found in Antarctica and Greenland.

Desert temperatures vary widely, both daily and seasonally. Dry air and cloudless skies allow a maximum amount of solar energy to reach the surface where it is absorbed and converted to heat, raising daytime temperatures dramatically. At night, air temperatures plummet as solar radiation ceases and heat is quickly wicked away into the cooler atmosphere. Temperatures may fluctuate as much as 100˚ in a 24-hour period. Ultraviolet radiation also presents other challenges to living organisms. Intense sunlight can damage skin cells, degrade retinal tissue, and destroy chlorophyll molecules in plants.

Rain in the Sonora Desert summer monsoon season by Kevin, Aug 2013

Green Sonoran Desert after brief winter rain by Wayne S. Grazio, Fwb 2017

Deserts experience seasons, just as those found in other biomes. In desert areas of Arizona, there are five recognized annual seasons. Spring, February through April, is characterized by mild temperatures and windy days. It is a dry season as warm winds wick away all exposed moisture. Summer, in May and June, is hot and dry, with many species remaining dormant to escape the heat. Summer monsoons, July through mid-September, signals a change in wind direction bringing moister air northward from the tropics. Frequent thunderstorms occur most years providing a period of replenishment for shrubs and trees. Autumn, in October and November, returns to warm and dry conditions. Winter comes in December and January bringing in mild temperatures and the possibility of a few rain showers.

The climate of the world’s deserts makes survival difficult, but many species have adapted to these conditions in some remarkable ways. Next week, we will investigate the desert regions of North America and their vast diversity of life.

_{Clockwise above: Blooming hedgehogs by Jasper Nance, Apr 2010; Desert globemallow by Take-A-Hike Arizona, Mar 2009; Desert woollystar, Eriastrum eremicum, Sonoran Desert by SSBiker1, May 2011}

Bird Migration

Migration began in early September and is just passing the peak period with several millions of birds in flight every night. Migration is defined as a seasonal and predictable event that is repeated annually. Other types of movements for bird populations include dispersal, occurring when a bird leaves the place where it was raised to find a mate, and irruption, occurring when a group of birds leave a site because winter is so harsh they are forced to move to find food.

Insect eater Eastern Kingbird, Tyrannus carolinensis, by Dennis Murphy, Jun 2016

Neotropical ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilochus colubris, by Rick-from-Alabama, Jun 2013

Migration requires that many species move hundreds of miles or more across and between continents. There are high risks involved, so why do birds leave a territory they have established a home in to go elsewhere for a portion of the year? Insect eating birds must move south in winter as food sources die off in significant numbers in northern regions when temperatures drop. Neotropical species require constant warmer temperatures. Many birds that spend the winter in equatorial belts move north in spring to take advantage of abundant summer food supplies and fewer nest predators including parasites. These birds must migrate south in autumn to remain in seasonally warm weather.

Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, soaring on Seedskadee NWR by USFWS Mountain-Prairie, Jan 2014

Blue jay, Cyanocitta cristata, in flight by Jo Zimny, Jan 2019

Many species fly at specific times during a twenty-four hour period. Thermals, upward moving columns of air, are created by the sun. Soaring birds including sandhill crane, golden eagle, and turkey vulture flying during daytime hours, depend on thermals to get airborne and remain aloft. Some daytime species are dependent on food sources that are only out in warmer, daytime air. For birds that do not ride the air currents, including blue jay and white-crowned sparrow across the northern United States, using powered flight generates much body heat, which is easily compensated for by cooler nighttime temperatures. Nighttime air is also less turbulent, making the flight smoother and requiring less energy.

Junco, Junco hyemalis, by Colin Durfee, Mar 2020

Migration distance varies widely among species and even within one species. In winter in northern Illinois, we often see dark-eyed juncos, Junco hyemalis, on our backyard feeders. This species breeds in summer in northern Canadian regions. Studies show that young males migrate only a short distance to southern Canada, while adult females migrate the greatest distance to the southern U.S. Adult males and young females migrate several hundred miles to winter in north-central regions. Observations of young males show they are first to stake out new territories in the spring for breeding. Adult males are aggressive enough to establish a territory upon their return. Adult females can arrive later to find a mate with an already established territory. And young females are simply learning the routine until they grow older.

Canada geese, Branta canadensis, in V formation by Floris van Halm, Jan 2010

Winds at flying altitudes are the main factor in determining whether a day’s travel will be long or short and use lots of energy or only a little. Strong headwinds reduce flight speed by up to half and require more energy. Strong tailwinds speed the flyer along with less effort. Birds that fly in flocks have more advantages. As air flows around a bird in flight, it is deflected upwards from the wingtips. Birds flying in a “V” formation, such as Canada geese, use the air coming off their neighbors wings to make their flight easier and use up to 40% less energy. As you watch a formation, notice the lead bird gets no energy savings but changes position every few minutes with another bird, so each takes a turn at the leader’s position.

Research in recent years has contributed to many sites having online tools for monitoring and learning about all aspects of migration. For fun facts and up-to-date information, take a look at:

Migration Dashboard (birdcast.info) shows migration information including dates, birds, counts, and routes by U.S. state or county.
Bird Migration Explorer (explorer.audubon.org) from Audubon shows maps of current migration activity.

Creepy Critters

A lot of creepy critters are starting to show up in my neighborhood as Halloween approaches. Many people are putting out scary pumpkins, bats, spiderwebs, and spiders. There are about 3,000 species of real spiders in North America, and all spiders have fangs that inject venom used to paralyze or kill their prey.

Spider web house by Stephanie Wallace, Oct 2007

Spiders are normally quite timid and must be threatened or provoked before they will attack a species larger than themselves. All spiders will bite, but most species do not have teeth that are large enough to break human skin. Of those that can bite through our skin, only four species dangerous to humans are found in North America. They belong to two groups, the widow spiders with three species in North America and the recluse spiders with eleven species in North America.

Widow spiders are all commonly called black widows, but they are actually three different species located across North America and include the western species, Lactrodectus hesperus, the northern species, Lactrodectus variolus, and the southern species, Lactrodectus mactans. In northern Illinois, the northern widow is a small species between 1/8″ and 3/8″ long. Males have long abdomens with white and red markings while females have more rounded abdomens with a red hourglass marking on their underside.

Northern black widow, *Lactrodectus variolus*, male by Judy Gallagher, May 2018

Northern black widow, *Lactrodectus variolus*, female by Andrew Hoffman, May 2012

Widow spiders are shy and tend to remain hidden under logs and stones, or just inside entrances to animal burrows. During autumn, as temperatures drop, they will move inside if possible and are often encountered under furniture, boxes, or discarded items that are not often disturbed. Webs are funnel-shaped and provide for adults and eggs. Once eggs are laid, the female will rarely leave the eggs untended, and will aggressively protect them from all harm, attempting to bite anyone that disturbs her or the eggs.

Black widows tend to flee rather than bite, unless they are protecting eggs. Only the females bite and their venom is especially dangerous to humans, but bites are not painful and may not even be noticeable at first. Severe stomach cramping develops within an hour or two and breathing may become difficult. Despite the uncomfortable effects, black widow bites are lethal in less than 1% of cases.

The brown recluse, Loxosceles reclusa, is the most widespread of the recluse spiders, and is often found in or around human dwellings. Other recluse species are found in very limited areas. Their favorite outdoor spots are under boards, stones and log piles, but they are most often found inside in quiet areas on the floor or behind furniture. Adult spiders are a light yellow-brown with a dark violin-shaped marking on their back. Adults are between 1/4″ and 1/2″ long with long, thin legs that can be three to four times the length of their body.

Brown recluse, *Loxosceles reclusa*, by Mike Keeling, Jan 2008

Recluse spiders are not aggressive and will only bite when disturbed. Most bites occur when the spider is caught in an article of clothing that is picked up off the floor, startling the spider. Once bitten, the wound develops a crust with a red zone around it. The crust may fall off rather quickly but leaves a crater behind that may take several months to fully heal. Although their bite may cause tissue damage, there have been no confirmed deaths in the United States.

Halloween is a special time of year and can be a fun time with scary creatures and other haunts. The Juricha-Suchy Nature Museum is hosting its 13th annual Creepy Critters Halloween Open House on October 26th (for info, please call (630) 829-6546 or email JuricaSuchyMuseum@ben.edu). I hope you get out for some trick-or-treating of your own, and let the real spiders live quietly in their own habitats.

Herbaria

When I am out walking, I often see plants that I would like to be able to identify, but I do not know their names. Knowing a common name, or a genus and species, can provide you with a starting point for finding out lots more information about the plant, the habitat it lives in, and other species it has relationships with.

Virginia Waterleaf by DonArnold, May 2020

Honeysuckle fruit by DonArnold, Jul 2020

A herbarium refers to both a collection of plants and a place to store that collection. Plants are mounted and labeled, and are accompanied by a data card providing information used for their scientific study. Mountings may include whole plants or individual parts of a plant such as roots, flowers, stems, leaves, seeds, and fruit. The data for each plant includes collector names, collection dates and locations, plant and habitat descriptions, and the condition of the specimen.

Negria rhabdothamnoides mounted specimen by John Game, Nov 2014

Specimen sheets are stored individually. Plant parts that cannot be pressed flat including nuts, cones, fruit, and branches are optionally stored in jars filled with a preservative. Historically, the preservative used was formaldehyde, but that was found to be harmful to humans as well as the specimens. The standard for today’s museums is to use Carosafe, a non-flammable alcohol solution. Another option is 70% ethanol, a flammable solution that must be used with extreme care. Some sheets can be found in protective cases allowing a specimen to be herbicided, disinfected, or frozen to prevent contamination and deterioration from undesirable organisms or unfavorable environmental conditions.

Dysoxylum pachyphyllum mounted specimen by John Game, Nov 2014

Herbaria preserve a historical record of vegetation changes in small and large habitats. Many plants that have become extinct either locally or world-wide are held in herbarium collections. The associated data kept for each specimen provides a record of the plant’s original distribution. Environmental science is using this data to track climate changes and identify how the loss of each species affects the original community it lived in.

seeds pictured include dandelion, aloe, coast sandalwood, dill, and milkweed

Herbaria often serve as a repository for several collection types. Collections of rare plant parts, fruits and seeds in particular, are used in the study of plant taxonomy. Voucher specimens, another collection type, are plant samples with collection data kept in publicly accessible collections for long-term study. Plant classifications are constantly updated. Vouchers are used to authenticate the plant’s taxonomy and identify the location and habitat it was growing in at the time it was collected.

Herbaria are an excellent source of plant DNA, a nucleic acid that carries genetic information about the species. DNA is widely used to study the evolution of a species and to identify close family relationships to other species. Many older specimens collected over the past several hundred years can provide insights into the historical changes in vegetation over time for a specific location, aiding in geographic distribution studies.

There are several herbaria in the Chicago area that are easy to explore online. Take a look at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University’s collections, available online at: https://www.gbif.org/dataset/d39570b9-2972-4dbb-b41f-6826823176ae. For a deep dive into what herbaria are and how they may be used, an article on specimen storage can be read at: https://www.nps.gov/museum/publications/conserveogram/11-12.pdf. Also, a good reference book to consider is: Herbarium: The Quest to Preserve & Classify the World’s Plants, by Barbara M. Thiers.

The Hunter’s Moon

The Hunter’s Moon will be appearing in the northern hemisphere on Sunday, October 9th this year. It always follows the Harvest Moon, the full moon that appears closest to the autumnal equinox.

Hunter’s Moon; 120 stacked shots for color and depth by Luis Argerich, Nov 2012

Full moons occur when the sun and moon are on opposite sides of the Earth. A full moon is almost 12 times brighter than a first or third quarter moon. The Harvest Moon’s name signifies that farmers working to bring in their crops will have enough light in the evening to work a few additional hours each day. After the harvest is complete, and fields are more open and easier to hunt in, the Hunter’s Moon will provide a few extra hours to kill enough prey to stockpile a family’s winter larder.

Hunter’s Moon in the afternoon by Jeffery Grandy, Oct 2015

In autumn, the path of the moon, known as the ecliptic, makes a narrow angle with the horizon and shortens the amount of time between the setting sun and the rising moon. At this time of year, the moon rises 30 minutes later each evening instead of 50 minutes later as it does the rest of the year. It will be particularly bright for several nights before and after the actual full moon, providing about two weeks of extra harvesting or hunting time.

The moon takes 27.3 days to orbit the Earth, but with the Earth orbiting the sun in the same direction, it actually takes 2.2 days longer for the moon to get back to the same point in the sky. A lunar month, 29.5 days long, is the time it takes for the moon to return to the same place. In our calendar, only February is shorter than 29.5 days, so each month typically has one full moon. A second full moon in one month, called a blue moon, occurs every 2.7 years, and no full moon in February occurs every 19.5 years. The next time there will be a month without a full moon will be in 2037.

Hunter’s Moon over Cleveland by Erick Drost, Oct 2019

When the moon rises, it looks huge, but this is only an illusion. To prove this to yourself, take a small object, such as a bottle cap and with one eye closed, hold it at arm’s length in front of you, covering the moon. Note how small or large the object is in relation to the moon. Do this when the moon is on the horizon and later when the moon is high in the sky. The object and moon will be the same size relative to each other at both viewing times. A full moon covers the same area of sky at all times during the night and no one full moon is any bigger or brighter than any other.

Hunter’s Moon while we sleep by Rebecca Suchland, Oct 2013

A full moon may have a reddish-orange tinge when it is close to the horizon. This is due to the extra amount of atmosphere between you and the moon compared to when it is straight over your head. The Earth’s atmosphere scatters blue light, but it lets red light waves through, giving the moon a reddish tinge.

I hope you all have a clear night sometime this week and get out to see this monthly phenomena. For more moon names and history, take a look at https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/moon/full-moon-names.html