adaptation – Discover-Nature

Egg-Laying Mammals

Mammals are endotherms, animals that maintain their own internal body temperature, and they have three unique traits: they are covered with fur or hair; the young are fed milk from the mother’s mammary glands; and they have three middle-ear bones. Most mammals give live birth, but one group, the monotremes, are egg-laying mammals. Fossil evidence has been found of monotremes that once lived in South America, but all of the species alive today, echidnas and platypus, reside in Australia and New Guinea.

Monotremes have other unique traits such as lacking adult teeth and stomachs. Food is taken in by mouth, swallowed, and travels through the esophagus straight into their intestines, which contain the chemicals needed to break down the food and absorb nutrients directly into the bloodstream.

Monotremes are solitary animals, coming together once a year to mate. An egg takes nearly a month to grow inside the female’s body, receiving nutrients directly from her. The egg has a soft, leathery exterior; and once it is laid, hatching happens quickly, usually within several days. Babies are called “puggles” and are born with well-developed forelegs allowing them to crawl over the mother’s body. Females do not have teats. Milk is excreted through special pores and puddles directly on the skin of the female’s stomach for the babies to lap up. Monotremes will lay one to two eggs each year. Parental care is provided only by the female, and newborns stay with the females for four to six months.

^{Eastern long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bartoni, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

^{Western long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijnii, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

^{Sir Davids long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus attenboroughi, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

^{Short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

Echidnas compose a group of four monotreme species that are nocturnal, spending most of the day hiding in fallen trees or empty burrows. With fur coats of darker brown or black, they are well camouflaged. All species forage for ants, termites, and other small invertebrates using a highly developed sense of smell to detect the trails and movements of their prey. As shown on the maps above, habitat for each species may include vast acreages or almost nothing at all. These secretive animals have not been well-studied, and accurate population numbers are not well-known.

^{Eastern long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bartoni, by Matteo De Stefano, specimen at MUSE}

^{Western long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijnii, by Jaganath, Mar 2006}

The Eastern long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bartoni, weighs 10-20 pounds, has no tail, and lives in the mountainous regions of New Guinea above 7,000 feet in altitude. It thrives on earthworms and insects using its long sticky tongue to easily capture and eat them. The Western long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijnii, also lives in similar habitat west of the Paniai Lakes region of New Guinea. This species is the largest of the echidnas, weighing about 40 pounds. They have long, sharp claws used to dig earthworms and other insects from the ground. It is illegal to hunt either of these species, but both are considered delicacies and have been greatly affected by poaching, as well as habitat destruction.

^{Short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, by Fir0002-Flagstaffotos, Jan 2007}

The short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, sometimes known as a spiny anteater, weighs between five and fifteen pounds. They have dark brown fur with cream colored quills made from modified keratin. A short tail and short but stout and strong limbs allow this animal to dig rapidly and easily tear apart logs in its search for termites and underground insects. Short-beaked echidnas spend much of their life underground and can tolerate low oxygen and high carbon dioxide levels. They have no sweat glands and cannot tolerate high heat, but will use their ability to swim in order to cool off during heat spells. During winter in Australia, the animal enters torpor, reducing its metabolism to conserve energy until waking in spring to mate.

^{Sir Davids long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus attenboroughi, specimen at Naturalis Biodiversity Center}

Sir David’s long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus attenboroughi, is the smallest echidna at about five pounds. This species is also solitary and nocturnal, coming together with others only once a year to find a mate. The female digs a well-insulated burrow for her single egg and takes care of her young for 4-5 months. These echidnas are critically endangered with population sizes unknown. The last one to be positively identified in the wild was recorded on a trail camera in 2023.

^{Duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, by Klausber, Mar 2012}

^{Duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, range map from the IUCN Database, Nov 2012}

^{Platypus puggles, by Faye Bedford, Jul 2009}

The duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, has a streamlined body made for easy maneuvering in the water. They live about 15 years in the wild and can mate at age two; they will normally have more than one mate in their lifetimes. Puggles are born hairless at about 8″ in length and will nurse for 2 to 4 months before learning to swim. They have some strange looking features including a large, flat bill and legs that come off the sides of their body, making them awkward on land, but graceful in the water.

^{Duck-billed platypus electrolocation infographic by Chiswick Chap}

The platypus is a nighttime, underwater hunter, searching for shrimp, crayfish, and other small animals. Their bill is covered with electroreceptors that can detect electrical impulses given off by their prey, enabling them to find their food even in dark, murky waters and muddy bottoms. Without teeth, they collect their prey in cheek pouches until they return to the water’s surface. A hard plate that runs along the edge of their bill is used in combination with bits of stone to grind their food before swallowing it.

^{Duck-billed platypus hind foot spur by Elonnon, Aug 2005}

Spikes or sharp, hollow spurs, are located on each of the platypuses hind ankles. Primarily used during mating season when engaged in fights with other males to establish territory, the spike delivers venom when stabbed into another animal. The venom is not fatal to other animals including humans, but if a human is stabbed, the venom causes nausea, sweats, swelling, and excruciating pain that is not treatable with any known pain-killer including morphine. However, the venom is being used in medicinal studies. A hormone contained in the venom has been found to promote the release of insulin and lower blood sugar levels in diabetes patients. A second chemical compound being studied is a protein in the female’s milk that has been found effective in treating antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Monotremes are unique in the world of mammals, but very little is actually known about their daily habits, population ranges, and what is needed to protect these species. Learn more by visiting the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a natural history institution near you.

Camels

Camels, known as the “ships of the desert” for the many unique attributes that allow them to live in a harsh environment, originated 40 million years ago in North America, but are no longer found there. Today, there are three recognized species, the dromedary camel, Camelus dromedarius, living in North Africa, the Middle East and western India; the domesticated Bactrian camel, Camelus bactrianus, living across central Asia, and the wild Bactrian camel, Camelus ferus, living in the deserts of northwest China and southwest Mongolia. Wild dromedary camels are extinct, and the population of wild Bactrian camels is critically endangered with less than 700 individuals competing with livestock for food and clean water.

^{Dromedary camel distribution map by EBKWiki, Nov 2024; Wild Bactrian camel distribution map by Oona Räisänen & IUCN, Nov 2010; Bactrian camel distribution map by EBKWiki, Nov 2024}

Camels at shoulder height are about seven feet tall, with a life expectancy of 40-50 years. Bactrian camels are much heavier and stockier, weighing up to 2,200 pounds, almost twice as much as a dromedary camel. Camels range from tan to dark brown in color with heavy, thick fur. They do not have hooves, but walk on two toes, widely split apart. Dromedary camels have a wide, soft pad of skin covering their toes, while Bactrian camels have a firmer foot, and both types of feet work effectively to keep camels from sinking into the sand. Both legs on one side move together allowing them to cover long distances and achieve short bursts of speed up to 40mph. When facing into the wind, camels use their double row of eyelashes, the hair covering their ears, and the ability to completely close their nostrils as protection from blowing sands.

^{Bactrian camel by J.Patrick Fischer, Dec 2011; Dromedary camel by Agadez, Mar 2008; Wild Bactrian camel by Paul Korecky, Sep 2017}

Camels are well-suited to their desert environment, having several adaptations for water conservation and the ability to go long periods without drinking. They can live 4-5 days in severe heat before dehydration becomes a problem. If temperatures are mild, the animal is not working, and it is getting sufficient water from its food sources, a camel can survive up to 10 months without drinking, allowing them to forage deep into the desert.

^{Dromedary camel kneeling by jjmusgrove, Feb 2023}

Camels need to drink once every ten days. They can lose up to 30% of their body weight in dehydration without discomfort. They are able to reduce urinary output by 80% when needed, and feces are always dry. When water is available, they can drink 25 to 30 gallons in a few minutes. Excess water is stored in their red blood cells. A camel’s hump is used to store fat, which can be reabsorbed for energy when food is scarce. Camels are able to adjust their internal body temperature by 10 or more degrees throughout the day. Being able to raise its internal temperature as the environment gets hotter allows the animal to tolerate the heat without the need to sweat, something they rarely do. Thick wool coats protect them from direct sunlight and heat. Even in a reclining position, their folded legs prevent the body from touching the hot surface and allow cool air to pass underneath.

^{Dromedary calf suckling mothers milk by Garrondo, Dec 2004}

Camels reach full size at about seven years old, but they are old enough to breed at three to four years old. One adult male with several females and young form a stable family group. Babies are born after a 13-14 month gestation period and weigh about 80 pounds at birth; they are able to walk within 30 minutes of being born. Their mother produces nine pounds of milk per day, and calves are dependent on her milk for 12-18 months. Camels are primarily herbivorous, consuming a wide variety of vegetation including plants with thorns and dry plants that other livestock will not touch. Their upper lip is split in two, with each side able to move independently, allowing them to easily grasp many types of vegetation. Their feeding habits help keep fast growing plants in check, and seeds consumed by camels moving great distances are widely spread over the desert.

^{Camel caravan entering Timbuctu by RAS News & Events}

Camels have a naturally docile disposition and humans have been domesticating them for over 10,000 years. Many desert cultures are dependent upon these bonds. Modern forms of transportation have replaced some aspects of the human-camel relationship, but camels are still bred as pack animals and for milk, meat, hair, and camel racing. Dromedary camels account for about 95% of the world camel population; and as pack animals, they can carry 200 pounds for 30 miles. Camel hair is often used to make textiles including clothing, tents, and bedding. Outer guard hairs are waterproof, while soft inner hair is used for premium goods. Camel milk is a staple for drinking, but is just as often used to make yogurt, cheese, and ice cream. Their meat is rich in protein, vitamins, and essential nutrients.

Camels have some of the most unique adaptations found in the animal world, allowing them to survive comfortably in a very harsh habitat. You can learn more and see camels at most zoos.

The High Life, animal species

In the last blog, we investigated the conditions and constraints of living at high altitudes, generally above 10,000 feet. A few physiological adaptations listed included enhanced breathing and blood supply to get more oxygen to the body, internal temperature regulation allowing some mammals to adjust to a colder environment, and smaller plants requiring less moisture and having a short growing season.

^{Common springtail, Orchesella cincta, by Mvuijlst, Feb 2009}

^{Springtail, Isotoma caerulea, by Andy Murray, Jul 2014}

The Himalayan jumping spider, Euophrys omnisuperstes, is generally found above 22,000 feet, living among rock crevices and feeding on stray insects blown upward by rising mountain winds. The spider also feeds on springtails, Collembola, once considered an insect but now classified as a free-ranging hexapod. These tiny organisms have antifreeze compounds in their blood, enabling them to live in higher, colder habitats.

Reptiles from four lizard species have been found living in higher elevations. Two species of iguana in the genus Liolaemus live in Bolivia; a third iguana species, Liolaemus tacnae, lives in Peru; and an Asian lizard, Phrynocephalus erythrurus, lives on the Tibetan plateau. All were found between 16,000 feet and 18,000 feet, but very little is known about them since these areas are difficult to access for study.

^{Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, by Giles Laurent, Dec 2021; Andean condor, Vultur gryphus, by Bastihitzi, May 2013; Alpine chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus, by Jim Higham, 2008}

Birds can be found living near mountain tops year-round. The Alpine chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus, lives in social flocks from the Alps to the Himalayas. Standing 15″ high with a 30″ wingspan, they have black feathers with distinct yellow beaks and red legs. They eat insects and berries in summer, but have become well-adapted to scavenging in winter, especially around ski resorts. The Andean condor, Vultur gryphus, another social bird, roosts on cliffs and outcrops above 16,000 feet. The steep terrain provides additional protection from potential predators. Golden eagles, Aquila chrysaetos, are found world-wide in many habitats. In the mountains, they hunt marmot, hare, and young goats at lower elevations, but nest in eyries, large cliff-hugging nests at higher elevations. With wingspans up to seven feet, they can dive at speeds of up to 150mph over unsuspecting prey.

^{Left top to bottom: Common crane, Grus grus, by Savithri Singh, Feb 2020; Whooper swan,Cygnus cygnus, by KyoichiNarukami, Japan, Jan 2012; Bar-headed goose, Anser indicus, by J.M.Garg, India, Mar 2000; Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture, Gyps rueppellii, by Lip Kee, Kenya, Aug 2008}

High altitude bird species with physiological adaptations for breathing and blood supply include those whose migration routes take them over the world’s highest mountain ranges. Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture, Gyps rueppellii, with an 8-foot wingspan, has been observed at altitudes exceeding 36,000 feet over the Ethiopian Highlands of Central Africa. The common crane, Grus grus, lives across eastern Europe and northern Asia, migrating over the Alps to Africa, India and southern China. The bar-headed goose, Anser indicus, and the whooper swan, Cygnus cygnus, both live in south Asia and migrate over the Alps to central and sub-Arctic Asia to breed.

^{Above: Large-eared pika, Ochotona macrotis,}
^{by Karunakar Rayker, Ladakh India, Feb 2008}

^{Right: Snow leopard, Panthera uncia, by Vassil, Aug 2007}

The heights of the Himalayas support mammals that can concentrate their hemoglobin and allow the blood to carry more oxygen, avoiding issues with hypoxia, a shortage of usable oxygen in the body. Species with this physiological adaptation include large-eared pika, Ochotona macrotis, living above 7,700 feet up to 20,000 feet; wild yak, Bos mutus, which have larger heart and lungs than domesticated yaks; and the snow leopard, Panthera uncia, living above 3,000 feet up to 18,000 feet. The snow leopard has short, heavily furred limbs and a long, heavy tail for use as a blanket. Its large nasal cavity and strong chest allows more oxygen to be taken in with each breath.

^{Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, by Charles J. Sharp, Ethiopia, Dec 2017; Mountain goat, Oreamnos americanus, by Darklich14, Colorado, Aug 2009; Tibetan argali, Ovis ammon, by DonArnold, Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, Mar 2026; Guanaco, Lama guanicoe, by Charles J. Sharp, Chile, Oct 2025; Yellow-rumped leaf-eared mouse, Phyllotis xanthopygus, drawing by Charles Darwin, 1832}

Mountain goats, Oreamnos americanus, can climb steep cliff faces with hooves that grip ledges and rock surfaces in the Rocky Mountains. The yellow-rumped leaf-eared mouse, Phyllotis xanthopygus, feeds on grains, seeds, roots, and insects in the Andean Mountains of Chile, living at altitudes to 22,000 feet. Guanaco, Lama guanicoe, a member of the camel family, lives in the Andes up to 13,000 feet and has about four times as many red blood cells as a human does. The Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, is an endangered species living up to 15,000 feet in central Africa with populations fragmented by pressure from human farming activities. Tibetan argali, Ovis ammon, is a wild sheep found in the Altai Mountains of Mongolia up to 19,000 feet. The ewes and lambs prefer steep, treacherous slopes as protection against predators.

Scientists continue to study species in these habitats to learn more about their specific adaptations and survival abilities in a harsh environment. You can learn more by visiting zoos or nature museums near you to investigate these fascinating species.

The High Life

Mountainous regions with high altitude habitats, generally defined as those found above 10,000 feet, are found in only a few places around the world. They include the Tibetan plateau and Himalayas in Asia, the Andean Altiplano in South America, the Ethiopian Highlands of Central Africa, the Rocky Mountains in western North America, and the Haleakala Mountains of Hawaii. High altitude regions have common characteristics that provide an array of challenges for the plant and animal species that live there.

_{Ethiopian Highlands by Martino’s doodles}

Air is composed of several gases including oxygen which makes up a consistent 21% of it. Barometric pressure is a measurement of the weight of the atmosphere above, and with more weight pressing down, air molecules are more compacted together. As one ascends, the pressure decreases with the result being that the air is thinner, less compacted, breathing becomes more difficult with less oxygen entering the lungs for every breath taken. About 3% of available oxygen is lost for every 1,000 feet of elevation gain. At 10,000 feet, there is 30% less oxygen available to breathe.

_{Haleakala Mountains by Kent Buckingham, Jul 2005}

As one ascends, along with thinning atmosphere, the temperature decreases by 4^◦Ffor every 1,000 feet, and may decrease even faster in drier air. At 10,000 feet, the average temperature is 40^◦F lower than at sea level in the same region, resulting in cool summers and frigid winters. Snow may cover these areas for much of the year, but many higher mountain peaks are too dry for snow. Vegetation is shorter, smaller in size, and slower growing. The tree-line defines a point where tress cannot survive the lower temperatures and general lack of moisture of higher altitudes.

_{Rocky Mountain National Park by Jim & Robin, Aug 2012}

When animals or humans who normally live in lower altitudes venture higher, they often experience acclimatization issues – changes in bodily functions that occur for short periods while at a higher altitude. As an example, one may experience difficulty breathing as air becomes thinner, and this strain eases after several minutes or hours. However, these changes occur every time a person ascends to those elevations. Permanent changes, which we call physiological adaptation, are known in relatively few animal species.

_{The Canapa Lagoon on the Andean Altiplano by Elias Rovielo, Feb 2019}

Physiological adaptations in birds include altered hemoglobin genes, allowing more oxygen to be carried in each molecule of blood. Birds optimize the process of getting oxygen into their blood as air moves across breathing surfaces during both inhalation and exhalation. High altitude fliers have larger hearts providing increased blood volumes for every heartbeat. In addition, they have more capillaries than other bird species, so oxygen-rich blood has to travel a shorter distance in the body to reach muscles, increasing the ability to maintain energy and movement in an efficient manner.

Mammals create their own body heat and maintain a consistent internal temperature through regulation of heat gained from burning calories and heat lost through layers of hair to the external environment. Many species living permanently in higher altitudes are able to decrease their body temperature for long periods, making it easier to adjust to a colder environment. Some species have a higher percentage of fat cells containing carbohydrates that can be called upon for extra energy for short periods.

_{The Tibetan Plateau by Tony Phillips, Aug 2006}

Typical plant life in these regions consist of grasses, sedges, lichens, and mosses. These are adapted to low temperatures, dry conditions, high ultraviolet radiation, and a short growing season. Mosses are found at the highest levels, growing above 21,000 feet on Mt. Everest. The flowering plant Arenaria bryophylla, a sandwort, lives above 20,000 feet.

In our next blog, we will take a look at the animal species that call these regions home, but you can check out mountain region displays at your favorite nature museum including the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum.

Red Panda

The red panda, Ailurus fulgens, a small mammal closely related to weasels and raccoons, is found in the Himalayan and Tibetan mountain ranges of Nepal, Bhutan, and southern China. There are two subspecies, the Himalayan red panda and the Chinese red panda, differentiated by slight skull and color variations. They were isolated almost 200,000 years ago by glaciation in the Brahmaputra River Valley.

Red pandas live in steeply sloped, heavily forested areas where bamboo grows in dense thickets and there is easy access to water. Their habitat ranges in altitude from 6,500 feet to over 14,000 feet, in a temperate area with average temperatures in the upper sixties (Fahrenheit). These mountain ranges contain many protected pockets of forest, interconnected with wildlife corridors through unprotected country. Some areas overlap habitat where the Giant Panda lives, and the two species must share the bamboo in these locations.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, by Pixabay 27707, Sep 2015}

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, climbing at Taronga Zoo, by Charles Wong}

The red panda has a round head with a short snout and white fringed, triangular ears. Adults are 24″ long and weigh about 15 pounds. Their fur is dense, reddish-brown and covered with dark guard hairs. A black belly and legs, with a white muzzle and alternating red and buff rings along an 18″ tail, ensures that the red panda is well camouflaged in a forested area covered in red moss and white lichen. They have five curved claws on each foot that can be partially retracted in addition to flexible joints in their pelvis and hind limbs and an elongated wrist bone ending in a false thumb. All of these adaptations allow for a great range of motion when climbing and moving about the forest.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, mom and newborn by Rainer Halama, Jul 2013}

Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, twittering

The red panda lives in solitude, except during mating season in late winter when they cautiously seek out mates, resting and feeding near one another for short periods. Mating occurs on the ground, and gestation lasts 13 weeks, but can be prolonged up to 24 weeks at the discretion of the mother. The female selects a den site, building a nest of sticks, leaves, grass, and moss. Litters are between 1 and 4 babies weighing only 3 to 4 ounces at birth. Babies are born covered in fur for warmth, but blind for their first 18 days. They depend on their mother for everything for three to five months, and will not leave home until a year has passed.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, sunbathing by Su-May, Sep 2011}

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, Conservation of energy by Tina R Tiller}

Red pandas move easily through the trees as well as over open ground. Trees next to bamboo stands provide places to sit higher up and eat, but the forest also provides shelter, an escape route from potential predators, and branches to sunbathe on in colder weather. If temperatures become too bitter, red pandas can lower their metabolic rates, curl into a tight ball, and sleep for a few hours to conserve warmth and energy. Bamboo makes up a large part of their diet, but it is supplemented with fruits, flowers, eggs, small mammals and birds. They prefer to eat early in the morning and late in the afternoon, while intermittently sleeping during the remaining hours.

_{Chinese red panda, Ailurus fulgens, named Kinta at Nogeyama Zoo, by Toshihiro Gamo}

Red pandas are on the endangered species list with decreasing populations near 10,000 in the wild. Their primary predators include leopards and jackals, which they can escape from using their climbing skills and agility through rocky and forested areas. But their main threat comes from poachers who prize their fur and bushy tails for the hat making industry and habitat destruction and land development that is steadily cutting large forests into small, isolated acreages. Red pandas have been well studied and are a favorite species at many zoos. Consider getting out this year to see them and learn more at a zoo near you.

Seaside

Shorelines of oceans, seas, and large bodies of water around the world are habitats for plants and animals that thrive in challenging conditions. Tides occur twice each day when water levels rise over a six hour period to cover large areas before receding to leave those same areas open to the air until the next tide starts to move inland again.

^{Nearshore habitat zones by King County, WA;} ^{Littoral Zones by US Government}

Shoreline habitat has been classified into zones often known by many different names. The intertidal zone is the area affected by changing temperature and salinity conditions as water moves in and out with each tide. The subtidal zone is the lowest and is exposed to air only during extreme spring tides or storms. The backshore zone is the highest and is exposed to water only during extreme spring tides or storms.

^{Starfish & anemone in tidal pool by Jonathan Levy}

^{Sea urchin in tidal pool, Bahia de Banderas by Jim Hoffman, Mar 2017}

Many species of animals live in each zone and are adapted to living completely submerged as well as completely uncovered by water for several hours each day. They handle the change in temperature and salinity with exposure to air or water. Tidal pools may keep some animals submerged for far longer periods. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, and salinity change far less for these organisms.

Bryozoans by John Turnbull, Sep 2021; Sea anemone by Barb Ignatius; Squat lobster, Glathea rostrata, by FWC Fish & Wildlife Research Institute, Aug 2013

Some species can be found in every zone in the ecosystem, but many are anchored to rocks or dug into the bottom. Species may prefer one zone, but get washed into another zone by wave action. Many organisms have tough outer surfaces to put up with battering waves and exposure to sun and wind. All of the occupants are subject to a wide range of predators from those that move on dry land to underwater hunters. Let’s take a look at a few of the creatures able to live in these ever-changing conditions.

The sea anemone clings to rocks and protects itself by drawing in its tentacles to become a jelly-like blob. The squat lobster can be found under stones along the shoreline. Its tail is fan-shaped and facilitates quick escapes when the animal is threatened by pulling the lobster through the water with powerful strokes. Bryozoans are small filter feeding organisms protected by a hard exoskeleton that the animal can withdraw into for protection.

^{Dog whelk, Nassarius livescens, by Budak, Dec 2016}

A mollusk called a dog whelk is a stealth predator often found on rocky surfaces. It uses its tongue to drill through the shells of other mollusks, where it squirts a digestive juice into the prey’s shell which kills and partially digests the prey. The dog whelk then uses its tongue to suck up the soupy meal. The starfish is another fierce predator. It wraps its arms around a shellfish and pulls it apart. Upon opening the shell, the starfish pushes its stomach out of itself and into the prey’s open shell where it empties its digestive juices inside, and similar to the dog whelk, creates a tasty, soupy, meal.

Sea urchins can be found clinging to hard surfaces where they feed on algae and other small, encrusted animals. Fan worms look like a leathery tube among underwater rocky crags. Several feathery tentacles fan out into the water to filter out microorganisms flowing by.

Shorelines create a habitat that is constantly changing with tides moving in and out, inconsistent weather conditions, and a large variety of flora and fauna coming and going. Learn more about this fascinating habitat at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a natural history museum near you.

^{Botanical beach at Port Renfrew by James Wheeler; Feather Boa kelp in the surf by Kqedquest, May 2007; Rocky intertidal zone in Oregon by Minustide, May 2015}

Bird Beaks

Beaks or bills? Two interchangeable words naming the horny part of the jaw of a bird. They have numerous uses including gathering food, feeding, preening, and display, and are often used for functions that would be accomplished by arms and hands on other animal species. Let’s take a closer look at their structure and how birds use them for feeding.

Beaks come in a variety of sizes, and most are proportionate to the size of the bird’s head. Two or more of the bones comprising the lower jaw in birds are often fused together, increasing the strength of the overall structure. Birds do not have teeth, allowing the jaw bones to be lightweight, making it easier for a bird to hold its head out in front of its body while flying.

^{Barn owl, Tyto alba, skull showing fused jaw bones by Didier Descouens, Jul 2010}

Beaks are made from bone covered with keratin, a structural protein providing strength and rigidity. Yet beaks have some flexibility which adds to their dexterity when in use. The inner surface of the keratin layer is constantly growing while the outer surface is equally being worn away by use. Both upper and lower jaws are jointed where they attach to the skull, allowing for extended movements including the ability of a bird to open its jaws wider than most other animal species.

^{Great white pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus, by Craig Adam, Feb 2013; Red-headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus, by Mark Moschell, May 2016; Evening grosbeak, Hesperiphona vespertina, by Fishhawk, Feb 2021}

A beak is specialized for every species depending on diet and food gathering methods. Cone-shaped beaks, found among cardinals, grosbeaks, and finches, can trap, cut, and crush seeds. Scoop-shaped beaks allow skimmers, spoonbills, and pelicans to slide their lower jaw under slippery prey, then catch and hold onto it . Beaks tipped with a chisel-like point are used by woodpeckers probing into crevices in hard materials. Along with a reinforced skull, keratin reinforces the beak’s toughness, standing up to repeated hammering and prying movements.

^{From upper left: Blue-gray gnatcatcher, Polioptila caerulea, by Dave Wendelken, Jul 2023; Pied flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca, by Edward Anderton, Jun 2012; Ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilocus colubris, by Mark Moschell, Jun 2019; Great-horned owl, Bubo virgianus, by Kevin Milazzo, Feb 2021}

Narrow tweezer-like beaks, used by gnatcatchers, warblers, and wrens, stab or seize small insects from branches. Wider and flatter tweezer-shaped beaks on purple martins and flycatchers can snatch an insect in flight. Long, slender beaks on hummingbirds are made for sucking nectar from the deep recesses of long, tubular flowers as well as catching tiny insects, such as fruit flies. Sharply pointed, hooked beaks are used by eagles, owls, hawks and shrikes to stab prey and hold on while pulling the meat apart into mouthful-sized chunks.

Many beaks serve more than one feeding function, as species change their diet from one type of food to another as seasons change. Tongues are an important addition to the mouth, manipulating food items for beaks to be more effective. Different sizes and colors of beaks convey information to other individuals about a birds sex and maturity level. This essential body part provides birds with many of the same capabilities as other animal species. Come to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, or a nature center near you, to learn more about the many adaptations of birds.

^{Ruddy Duck, Oxyura jamaicensis, by Sergey Yeliseev, Nov 2013}

Great Horned Owls

The great-horned owl, Bubo virginianus, is native to much of the Americas, including most of North America and Central America and about half of South America. It is the second heaviest owl in North America, right behind the snowy owl, Bubo scandiacus, weighing up to five-and-a-half pounds with a wingspan between three and five feet.

^{Great-horned owl, Bubo virginianus, by Andy Reago&Chrissy McClareen, Aug 2012}

^{Range and distribution of Great-Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus by BirdLife International, 2014}

Feathers cover the entire body, including their feet, and are varying shades of browns and grays. Their backs and heads are mottled or barred in several patches. This coloration, especially when coupled with mostly nocturnal activities, provides excellent camouflage. Their ‘horns’ are actually feathers sticking upwards on either side of their heads. These are called plumicorns, but their function is not well understood. The feather structure of the wing allows owls to fly silently and includes a serrated leading edge to disrupt turbulence and softer feathers behind to help deaden sound.

^{Great horned owl plumicorns by Jean-pol Grandmont, Aug 2013}

^{Great horned owl wing structure by Peter K. Burian, Aug 2015}

The owl’s ears are covered by feathers, but are not symmetrical with one being higher on the side of the head than the other. This arrangement provides the owl with the ability to triangulate sounds and precisely locate prey in the dark or when prey is hidden, such as when an animal is moving about under a layer of snow. Their flattened face, shaped as a round disc, also helps to direct sound to their ears. Like all owls, their eyes are fixed in the sockets, but the bird can swivel its head almost 180° to either side allowing it to see in all directions.

^{Great horned owl talons by Curtis Bouvier, May 2010}

Great horned owls hunt from a perch, observing the area below them before diving swiftly and silently from far above. Their diet consists of small mammals, birds, amphibians, and a variety of snakes. Their talons are powerful and deadly, with a grip comparable to much larger birds such as golden eagles. Most prey is killed by being pierced or crushed in the talons. Owls may hunt and kill for more than their immediate needs and will cache their kills for future meals.

Great horned owls are not migratory. When an owl is ready to mate, courtship occurs in late fall and pairs mate for life, establishing a territory together in which they will live their entire lives. Most territorial defense is through hooting at a transgressor, but rare physical confrontations have been observed. If an owl cannot establish its own territory, it will live in silence among the fringes of other territories.

^{Great-horned owl juveniles, Bubo virginianus, by Alan Vernon, Jun 2010}

^{Great horned owl female & juvenile on nest by John Kees, Apr 2012}

Males are responsible for picking a nest site, almost always taking over a nest constructed by another species. Mated pairs breed once every two to three years, laying from one to six eggs. Egg laying occurs between late February and early April. The female alone incubates the eggs, never leaving the nest, while the male hunts and brings her food. After about 33 days, the eggs hatch. Young owls will start to fly after seven weeks, but take a full month or more to become proficient.

^{Great horned owl calling, Bubo virginianus, by Michael & Katie LaTour, Jan 2019 (at 0:02, 0:10)}

^{Great-horned owl pair calling by Bushman, Dec 2013 (at 0:18, 0:41, 0:51, 1:22)}

Owls are more often heard than seen. Although the females are larger than males, females have a smaller voice box and thus a higher pitched hooting call ending with a slight rising note. Juveniles can make hissing or screeching sounds and are often misidentified as barn owls, Tyto furcata.

You can learn more about these magnificent birds at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum. Make a reservation to come see us by visiting our website at: https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/ (click on Register to Visit the Museum).

Fancy Hair

Hair is a structure that is unique to mammals, growing from small organs called follicles found just under the outer layer of skin. Hair can be modified into different forms providing insulation, camouflage, signaling, sensing movement, and for use in defense.

^{A scanning electron microscope image of human hair showing keratin layers, by CSIRO, Oct 2008}

The hair shaft extends above the surface of the skin. It is formed from layers of a protein called keratin. When bundled together, the layers form strong and hardened strands. There are more than 50 types of keratin that together form hair, nails, outer skin layers, claws, hooves, horns, plates, and baleen. Many keratin proteins are combined with varying amounts of an amino acid called cysteine, that provides additional strength and hardness. Let’s investigate some forms of hair that help keep mammals protected.

Left: Armadillo scutes encapsulating their body by DonArnold, 2025; upper right: Armadillo showing arrangement of scutes and plates covering their body by DonArnold, 2025; lower right: Southern three-banded Armadillo, rolled into a ball, by MiraianeDL, Getty Images

An armadillo has a tough shell encasing the sides and upper parts of its body. The shell is composed of solid pieces covering hips and shoulders and bony plates in between. The entire shell is covered with scutes, small scale-like structures made from hair flattened into a tough, leathery layer protecting the outside of the shell. The bands form a flexible pattern that allow the animal to move quickly with very few of the softer body parts exposed. The three-banded armadillo of South America can roll up into an almost impenetrable ball with only the scutes exposed.

^{Pangolin searching for ants by 2630ben, Getty Images}

^{Pangolin lies rolled into a ball by Khlongwangchao, Getty Images}

The pangolin looks similar to an armadillo, and although they are not related, they do possess similar features. Pangolins can also roll up into a tight ball. Their tail, covered with sharp-edged scutes can be left outside the ball and used to lash out against potential predators. However, being smaller animals, this form of defense provides almost no protection against their greatest threat – humans. They are the most trafficked mammal in the world, hunted for their meat which is served as a delicacy in many parts of the world. Their scutes are also in high demand by cultures for medicine and by leather goods industries.

Mammalian spines and quills are two other structures formed from hair. Quills have a hardened outer covering, and a soft, spongy core, and are found in porcupines, echidnas, and some rodents. Spines also have a hard outer covering of keratin, but consist of solid layers of hair inside. Both structures are generally straight and rigid, and may be sharply pointed, with or without a barb at the end.

Porcupines have quills with sharp tips and a backward facing barb near their ends. Porcupines cannot shoot a quill at an attacker, but if the attacker comes into contact with any of the quills, their sharp ends easily penetrate skin. Quills are brittle and often break off after being embedded, and the barb makes them difficult to remove, resulting in a painful experience for an aggressor that gets too close.

^{Hedgehog rolled into a ball by Tchara, Getty Images}

Hedgehogs are known for their spines, which are all the same length, not barbed, and do not come out easily. They are more like prickles, providing a pointed reminder to an aggressor not to get too close. A hedgehog can roll into a ball with all of the spines projecting outwards, making it very difficult to grab or bite the animal without being pricked any number of times.

^{Echidna, aka Spiny Anteater, by DonArnold, 2025}

At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, you can learn about these defense tactics, as well as those of other species and how they provide for their own safety. Make a reservation to come see us by visiting our website at: https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/ (click on Register to Visit the Museum)

Pamir Wildlife

The Pamir Mountains form the western edge of the Tibetan Plateau. A pamir is a high-altitude valley or plateau surrounded by mountains. Many valleys in this range exceed 14,000 feet in altitude, and peaks reach well above 20,000 feet, making these some of the highest mountains on the Euroasian continent. The area contains the major center of glaciation in this part of the world, and all of the nearby mountain ranges are still being forced upwards by movement of the Indian-Australian tectonic plate pushing northward under the continent.

^{Pamir Knot, Hindu Kush satellite image by Jeff Schmaltz, NASA}

^{Pamir Mountains by Amanov Dmitry, Jun 2014}

Wildlife in the Pamir region is well-adapted for high altitudes, long, cold winters, and short growing seasons. Mountain people use the land for grazing large herds of domesticated sheep and yaks, but grazing space must also be shared with wild sheep, wild yaks, dozens of bird species, over 700,000 insect species, and many large predators. Let’s look at a few of the more notable species.

^{Himalayan vulture, Gyps himalayensis, on Rupin Pass trail by SahanaM, Oct 2018}

^{Himalayan vulture, Gyps himalayensis, by OK-Photography, Getty Images}

The Himalayan vulture, Gyps himalayensis, inhabits the pamirs up to 18,000 feet. These birds easily soar on warm thermal updrafts, but are not capable of long distance flight. They are often found basking in the sun on high, rocky perches. Traveling in large flocks, they follow grazing herds, keeping watch for dead animals. They can be aggressive to most other predators at a kill site, but give way to snow leopards, wolves, and cinereous vultures. The biggest threat to current populations is from drug overdoses of diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory drug that has been heavily used to treat injury in domesticated herds.

^{Herd of Marco Polo sheep in the Tien Shan mountains, by okyela, Getty Images}

^{Marco Polo sheep, taken at Berlin Zoo by Cloudtail, Aug 2018}

The Marco Polo sheep, Ovis ammon polii, is the largest sheep in the world, with large, spiral horns reaching six feet in length, with spans up to five feet across. They feed in the early morning and spend the remainder of the day basking quietly in sunny grassland. Their feet and hooves provide sure footing among sharp ridges and loose scree, and they spend nights sleeping among large boulders for protection. As the climate has warmed, there has been a loss of snowpack, resulting in less available fresh water for drinking and growing thick grasslands. These factors are driving the sheep to lower altitudes where they are more susceptible to predators including gray wolves, red fox, and brown bear.

^{Snow leopard, Panthera uncia, by Irbis1983}

^{Snow leopard, Panthera uncia, by Bernard Landgraf, Jan 2005}

Snow leopards, Panthera uncia, have seen a steady decline with a current population of fewer than 10,000. Their thick fur, gray/white with black rosettes, provides great warmth in colder altitudes, but is prized by poachers, who constitute their main threat. They are solitary animals, active for several brief periods daily, and dependent on healthy populations of ibex and sheep to eat. Powerful legs and furred paws enable them to pursue prey, in any weather, across rocky mountain terrain. After making a kill, they move the carcass to a protected area to eat. At one time, these predators were hardly ever seen, but overgrazing has caused humans to move domesticated animals into areas where snow leopards normally hunt, providing more opportunities for these predators to be killed by protective herdsmen.

^{Wild yak, Bos mutus, by Adarsh Thakuri, Jun 2008}

^{Wild yak, Bos mutus, by the Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica}

Wild yak, Bos mutus, can live in extreme conditions at altitudes up to 20,000 feet. They are large animals standing 6′ tall, weighing 1500 pounds, with black horns spanning six feet. Black, long, fine hair hangs all the way down to their feet, providing warmth for the body and legs. Yaks are very social, forming large herds of several hundred animals. They graze in two groups, with the females typically found about 300′ higher in altitude than the males. Females with young often keep to high, steep slopes where predators, including wolves and bears, are less prone to roam. Wild yaks readily hybridized with domesticated species, resulting in a natural spread of the gene pool.

^{Apollo swallowtail butterfly, Parnassius apollo, by Hectonichus, 2007}

^{Clouded Apollo swallowtail butterfly, Parnassius apollo, by Zeynel Cebeci, Adana Turkey, May 2016}

Butterflies are another common inhabitant of high-altitude mountain regions, particularly from the genus Parnassius, known as the snow Apollo swallowtail family. They are color adapted with dark bodies and wing bases that readily absorb heat from the sun providing a source of quick energy. Their normal ranges are found above 14,000 feet, and they are active for only 2-3 months annually, during the short summer season. Dozens of species have been identified with many having very small populations, numbering only a few hundred individuals. Poaching for collectors remains their main threat.

At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, we have many of these and other species on display in our mountain region diorama. Consider a visit to learn more about the wildlife of high-mountain plateaus worldwide.

^{High-altitude species from around the world on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum include: Marco Polo argali sheep, Alaskan brown bear, bighorn sheep varieties, mountain goat.}

Salamanders

Salamanders are in the order of amphibians named Caudata, which includes mudpuppies, newts, and sirens. There are about 760 species of salamanders worldwide and 121 species are endangered. With the exception of a few in the Amazon basin, they are found only in the northern hemisphere. They live in habitats that provide sufficient humidity levels to keep their skin moist, from sea level to nearly 15,000 feet in altitude.

^{Northern zig-zag salamander, Plethodon dorsalis, by John P Clare, 2016}

^{Marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

The smallest species are lungless salamanders of southern Mexico, growing to an inch in length. The largest species are the Chinese great salamanders, about six feet in length. They are often mistaken for lizards, having smooth or bumpy skin, but can be easily identified by their total lack of scales. All salamanders have a tail which is rounded in terrestrial species but slightly flattened and often crested in aquatic species. Most salamanders are grey, brown, or white, but a few terrestrial species are brightly colored. Cave dwelling salamanders often lack all pigment and appear pinkish-white in daylight.

^{* Western lesser siren, Siren intermedia nettingi, by Peter Paplanus, 2013}

^{Long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicauda longicauda, by Meghan Alessi, Getty Images}

Salamanders, other than cave-dwellers, tend to have well-developed eyes. Research shows they are very attuned to differentiating brightness, but cannot see colors. Their eyes are large and provide nearly 360 degrees of view. Salamanders have no external ears, but can detect vibrations received through their jaw bones. Although some species can emit small squeaks, salamanders have no vocal chords or voice box and do not use vocal communications. Their sense of smell is well-developed and plays an important part in locating prey and mates.

^{* Hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis}
^{alleganiensis, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga, by Alfred Crabtree, 2012}

Salamanders may have functional lungs, non-functioning lungs, or no lungs. All species have the ability to exchange gases directly through their skin and the membranes inside their mouth and throat, but this also requires that the skin remain moist at all times. Terrestrial salamanders depend on moisture found in deep leaf litter, holes in trees in temperate zones, or moisture collected in bromeliads growing on trees in tropical zones.

^{Four-toed salamander, Hemidactylium scutatum,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

Salamanders have three sets of glands located under the skin, covering their entire body. Mucous glands secrete a sticky liquid that is spread over their body keeping the skin from drying out. When salamanders are in the water, the mucous acts as a lubricant, enhancing their swimming ability. A second set, called the granular glands, produce toxins and odors unique to each species that helps to deter predators and attract mates. A third set of glands is a mixture of the first two, doing a little bit of the work of each.

^{Small-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum,}
^{by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

^{Tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum, by John P Clare, 2013}

Salamanders are not as noticeable as many other species. They prefer secrecy and out-of-the-way hiding places. Most species are active at dusk and into the nighttime. All salamanders are carnivorous, feeding on small crustaceans, insects, spiders, and their favorite food – worms. Predators include snakes, lizards, fish, birds, and small mammals. Salamanders defend themselves by exhibiting threatening poses and emitting toxins, many with a bad odor. As a last defense, they may voluntarily lose their tails to a predator, a trait known as autotomy. A new tail can be grown within a few weeks.

Salamanders are easy to care for and their habitats are easily duplicated making them widely distributed in the pet trade and for use in laboratories. Additional conservation impacts come from habitat fragmentation, or habitat degradation, or habitat loss due to draining of wetlands and forest clearing.

^{Northern slimy salamander, Plethodon}
^{glutinosus glutinosus,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus cinereus, by Steve Byland, Getty Images}

In Illinois, we have 20 species of salamanders, pictured throughout this blog. Seventeen are terrestrial and three are aquatic (*). Consider coming to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature museum near you to learn more about salamanders in your area.

Spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, by Louisianatreefarmer, Getty Images
Blue-spotted salamander, Ambystoma laterale, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
Central newt, Notophthalmus viridescens louisianensis, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dusky salamander, Desmognathus fuscus conanti, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
* Mud puppy, Necturus maculosus maculosus, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010
Three-toed salamander, Amphiuma tridactylum, by Peter Paplanus, 2016
Southern two-lined salamander, Eurycea cirrigera, by Peter Paplanus, 2021
Mole salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dark-sided salamander, Eurycea longicauda melanopleura, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010

Illinois Owls

Owls are found year-round in northern Illinois, and they come in several sizes and shapes and live in various habitats. Owls found near urban areas are often active only in the evening or at night, making them elusive to find and observe their behaviors. Native owl species have a highly varied diet, hunting almost every animal smaller than themselves from insects and crustaceans to small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Some of their unique characteristics and places to find them are highlighted below.

^{Barn Owl, Tyto alba pratincola, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum and Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

Great Horned Owls, Bubo virginianus, live in every habitat across North America, Central America, and parts of South America. Standing two feet tall with mottled brown and gray feathers, they are well camouflaged during nighttime activities. Their ‘horns’ are actually feather tufts sticking out above their ears, which may enhance hearing and make them easy to identify. Look for them at dawn and dusk in tall trees standing on the edges of open spaces. The Barn Owl, Tyto alba, hides in tree hollows or dense vegetation during the day, coming out to hunt at night. They are a foot tall with a distinct white face and chest and pale brown and gray backs. A high energy lifestyle requires them to eat more than other animals their size. They are mostly found in open fields near wooded areas that provide diverse habitat for prey.

^{Barred Owl, Strix varia by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Northern Saw-whet Owl, Aegolius acadicus by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

Three owls are daytime hunters, but not often found in urban areas. Barred Owls, Strix varia, have small territories, covering no more than a few square miles during their lifetime. They are brownish gray with dark stripes on their bellies. They hunt during both daytime and nighttime and have been known to eat carrion if it’s easily available. Look for them in wetlands with mature woodland cover nearby. Another daytime hunter, the Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus, is an abundant species standing about a foot tall and known by its brown speckles covering a cream colored undercoat, with a barred tail and wings and a light belly. Their diet is similar to other owl species, but they may also hunt rabbit and weasel. Look for them flying low to the ground in open areas including grasslands, meadows, and wetlands. The Northern Saw-whet Owl, Aegolius acadicus, is only six inches tall, with a round, light colored face and belly streaked with brown, and a brown back with light spots. They are highly maneuverable and can easily hunt in small spaces. These owls have incredibly sharp talons and beaks, and they are able to take down prey larger then themselves. They favor dense, mature forests, especially those containing conifers.

^{Eastern Screech Owl, Megascops aslo, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

The next two species are smaller, nighttime hunters, often found in urban areas. The Eastern Screech Owl, Megascops aslo, stands eight inches tall and is all grey or slightly reddish-tinged. This owl species has also been observed feeding on fruits and berries. They are found in forests, wetlands, and urban neighborhoods with mature trees. The Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, one of the most abundant owl species world-wide, is a foot tall, with black and brown plumage. They hunt by stealth, waiting on a perch for prey to come close, then pouncing. Look for them in urban settings with large trees and in many state park areas.

Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum

A winter only resident, the Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus, stands two feet tall with distinctive, almost pure white plumage. They are active both night and day, and can cover large distances in their daily hunts. A large, ferocious hunter, they can take down prey larger than themselves. They are found in a widely diverse set of habitats including open grassland, wetlands, shorelines, and several of our area’s larger airports.

We have many owls on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum. Come in and learn from our newest Illinois In Winter display or our owl and other raptor displays. We are closed for the holiday break, but consider visiting us as we reopen for the Spring semester in early January. Check out our schedule and make a reservation to come see us at https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/.

Illinois Owls

Owls are a type of raptor, a bird of prey with forward-looking eyes, large talons, and hooked beaks. Raptors are known for having the best vision of any animal, and they are skilled hunters found across all habitats. Other raptors include hawks, eagles, falcons, kites, and vultures. There are nineteen owl species native to North America, and eight of them are regularly found in Illinois.

^{Pictures clockwise above: Black Kite by Martine LIU, Getty Images; Golden Eagle by Timu Abasov, Getty Images; Red-tailed Hawk by BrianEKushner, Getty Images; Turkey Vulture by James Opiyo, Getty Images; Peregrine Falcon by Harry Collins, Getty Images Pro}

Owls have large eyes that look forward and provide a wide angle of view. Their binocular vision helps these birds easily spot prey and accurately judge distances when either stationary or in flight. An owl’s eyes cannot move within the eye socket, so the owl must move its entire head, which is capable of rotating 270 degrees to see completely around itself. Their vision is extremely sensitive to light, and they are capable of hunting when conditions are quite dark.

^{Barn Owl face by QuentinJLang, Getty Images}

^{Great-horned Owl looking back by Celine Bisson, Getty Images}

The feathers on their round faces help to direct sound into their ears, which are located on either side of their head. Their ears are small openings covered by feathers that can enhance and separate sound waves, working like binocular vision, allowing the bird to identify how far and in which direction a sound originates. Their enhanced ability to detect movement around themselves, coupled with excellent vision, makes these birds of prey one of the top hunters in their environment.

^{Owl beak closeup by GrahamH, Pixabay; Snowy Owl talons by WWing, Getty Images; Black fur in owl pellet by Justin Smith, Getty Images}

Sharp beaks and talons are used to capture and hold prey, and to easily tear apart meat. All raptors have eight toes ending in a talon, or sharp claw, made of keratin. Owl talons are long and curved and are used to easily grasp a branch or a prey animal. Their beaks are made of bone covered with keratin, with very sharp edges. They have no teeth to chew food, and they eat their prey whole or in large chunks. Whatever is not digestible, including bones, fur, and feathers, is compressed into a wad in the owl’s mouth and spit back out as a pellet. An Investigation of owl pellet contents can reveal the prey the owl is currently eating.

Fringed ends of owl flight feathers by ElvisCZ, Pixabay

Owls have fringed outer edges to their flight feathers that deaden almost all sound made while flying, making it difficult for prey to detect an owl coming for them. An owl’s large, rounded wings and short tail provide great maneuverability while flying. Their excellent vision, hearing, and flight maneuverability allows them to hunt at night in areas with numerous obstacles including woodland and urban areas.

In the next blog, I will take a closer look at the owls in Illinois. At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, we have several displays that highlight the various characteristics of owls and other raptors. We are closing for the holiday break, but consider visiting us as we reopen for the Spring semester in early January. Check out our schedule and make a reservation to come see us at https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/.

Bearing Up In Winter

American black bears, Ursus americanus, live in several habitats in North America including forests, beaches, and alpine regions. However, their diet, home range, and sleeping pattern are unique to each individual bear. Winter behavior is determined by temperature and available food in their immediate area.

Black bear on the shoreline on Vancouver Island, BC by Miharing, Getty Images Signature

Black bear in first snow by KenCanning, Getty Images Signature

Bears are omnivores, eating a variety of plants, insects, fish, small animals, carrion, and human garbage. In colder months, the lack of readily available food and falling temperatures drive bears into dens to hibernate until warmer temperatures return. Typical den sites include hollow logs, under tree root masses, and rocky crevices or caves. Black bears, especially in areas of the Smoky Mountains where extreme temperature drops do not occur, will make dens in tree cavities high off the ground. Bears are not true hibernators and may be awake or even leave the den on days with warmer temperatures.

Black bear in rock crevice den by
Nastasic, Getty Images Signature

Black bear den under root mass by
Blazer76, Getty Images

Once they move into a den, bears can lower their body temperature by eight to twelve degrees and burn body fat to satisfy all of their energy requirements. They do not eat, drink, urinate, or defecate while in the den, although they do wake occasionally to shift their resting position. Bears remain in hibernation while cold temperatures persist. In Alaska’s interior, this may be up to seven months, while in southern and coastal areas hibernation might last only two to three months. In late summer and fall, bears eat 50 to 80 pounds of food and add three to six pounds of fat each day in preparation for winter.

Black bears are solitary animals, coming together only in summer to mate, a bi-annual activity for adult females. Females are able to delay implantation of the fertilized eggs until after they are in the den for the winter. Cubs are born after eight weeks, in mid-winter. They weigh less than half-a-pound and are hairless and helpless. An average litter of one to three cubs will nurse from their mother for three to six months and will be nearly five pounds each as they emerge from the den in late spring. Cubs stay with mom for about 18 months, learning to fend for themselves, and will reach an average of 80 pounds by the end of their first year.

Black bear den with female and nursing cubs by National Park Service

Unless the bear is a pregnant female or the weather conditions are extreme, if there is food available, there is no need to hibernate. Zoo bears historically do not hibernate. However, many zoos are changing their practices by reducing meal sizes so their bears do enter hibernation for short periods. Studies show that this leads to fewer problems with overweight bears, and allows pregnant females the quiet time needed for cubs to develop naturally.

Black bear cubs in spring in Glacier Bay National Park by National Park Service

Black bear female nursing cubs by Alan D Wilson, 2010

Scientists are studying several health issues important to both bears and humans. Bears lose about 25% of their muscle mass during an extended hibernation, but emerge from the den with strong bones and good physical abilities. As humans become less active due to aging or other circumstances, they lose almost 60% of muscle and bone mass in the same period. Loss of bone mass, termed osteoporosis, accounts for over half of the bone fractures in adults over fifty years of age. Studies on how bears conserve and reuse proteins during hibernation, and use fat for energy, may provide insights into helping people to maintain their strength and health as they age or become less active.

At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, you can learn more about black bears, grizzly bears, and polar bears.

Insects Over Winter

It is starting to get chilly in the Midwest as we head toward winter. Insects also recognize the shorter daylight hours and dropping temperatures. They use two main strategies to cope with winters: freeze avoidance and freeze tolerance. Avoidance may require travel or a dry place to stay warm. Tolerant insects can stay here and control their body’s response to freezing temperatures. Staying in place has several advantages including being able to emerge early in spring, allowing those insects to feed before predators are out.

^{Clockwise from upper left: Monarch butterflies on migration by Dopeyden, Getty Images; Cecropia moth cocoon by Sylvie Bouchard, Getty Images; Milkweed bugs by Rick Wood, Rick Wood’s Images; Four-lined plant bug, Poecilocapsus lineatus, by Heather Broccard-Bell, Getty Images Signature; Common pill-bug by Ines Carrara, Getty Images}

Those insect groups that opt for traveling to warmer climates often make a one-way trip. Monarchs are one of the best known insect migrators. Monarchs east of the Rocky Mountains leave in early fall to arrive at overwintering sites in the mountains of Mexico. Their offspring return to the southern U.S. in spring to breed, and this second generation returns to the East and Midwest over the following summer. Monarchs west of the Rockies overwinter in Baja, California, and many of the same individuals that fly south do return, but their trip is considerably shorter allowing time for breeding during summer months in the northwest U.S.

^{Honeybees in hive by OK-Photography, Getty Images}

Many different species of insects can control or stop ice formation in their bodies. Honeybees cluster together and shiver, generating enough body heat to keep the air above freezing in their hive. Other insects get rid of all the food and water in their bodies, becoming dehydrated and unable to freeze. Some species can control where ice crystals may form in their bodies, and prevent their formation inside cells that would cause harm to the insect. Insect species that retain some water use cryoprotectants, chemicals resulting from large amounts of sugar. One such chemical is glycerol, which lowers the freezing temperature of water and other liquids.

^{Dragonfly larva with fish by Mauribo, Getty Images Signature}

^{Fast running stream by Mburnham, Getty Images}

Some insects remain active throughout the winter. Aquatic insects in immature stages can easily spend the winter in fast moving or deeper water that does not freeze. Some insects move inside warm and protected places like attics, sheds, and gaps in house walls. They also overwinter in tree cavities, under bark, inside dead plants, and in old burrows. Allowing vegetation with hollow stems to stand through the winter will provide many populations a safe place to spend the season.

The insect version of hibernation is called diapause, when growth and development is halted until longer daylight hours prevail. Late winter weather patterns with warm periods interspersed with cold periods endanger many species. Another change we have experienced in recent years involves warm temperatures lasting later in fall and starting earlier in spring. These changes interrupt the historical natural cycles, causing insects and other animals to abort hibernation and actively look for food or mates. Food plants do not produce enough to support animal populations, or another cold period returns, and species are not able to adapt, and often perish.

^{A garden in winter by Vermontalm, Getty Images; Snag and deadwood in winter by BayDavn0211, Getty Images; Spring garden and returning insects by Anthony Lerma, Getty Images}

Insects are a vital part of healthy habitats, providing pollination services and food to many species. We can help overwintering insects by leaving dead stalks standing until late spring to provide safe habitat. Leaves left piled up provide nutrients, insulation, and a place of shelter. Uncovered soil can also host ground nesters such as native bees. Snags and logs provide lots of cavities protected from the weather. Selecting some plant species that bloom early or late in the year will provide additional food at those times. Growing plants in clusters enables insects to find all they need in one place. With a little planning, everyone’s backyard can be an inviting habitat for insects year-round.

Ostrich

The ostrich, the largest and heaviest bird, is one of the handful of birds that cannot fly. They live in arid and semi-arid habitats in Africa, as well as in a small population of once captive birds that were released into the wilds of Australia. Several sub-species of the common ostrich, Struthio camelus can be found across most of Africa, while the Somali ostrich, Struthio molybdophanes, is only found in the far east around the Horn of Africa.

^{Common ostrich, Struthio cameus, Tanzania by Patrick Gijsbers, Getty Images Signature; Female Somali ostrich, Struthio molybdophanes, in Kenya by Ninara, Dec 2013; Male Somali ostrich, Struthio molybdophanes, in Kenya by Christiaan Kooyman, Jan 2003}

Ostrich males, called roosters, are predominantly black and can grow to 9′ and 180 pounds, while the slightly smaller females, called hens, have grayish-brown feathers and top out at about 6′ and 240 pounds. They live 30-40 years in the wild. Ostrich eyes, at almost 2″ in diameter, are the largest eyes of any land animal. Their species, camelus, refers to their long necks, large eyelashes, long legs, and their ability to go without water for extended periods.

Birds that can fly have many strong flight muscles attached to their sternum, which is shaped like a keel, an elongated structure which is narrow at the top and flares out at the bottom. However, the sternum of the ostrich is flattened and their wings are quite small. They do have powerful legs that allow them to sprint over 40mph and run long distances at an average speed of 31mph. Their long legs can cover 10-16 feet in a single stride. They only have two toes with one having a long claw that can dig into the ground for extra traction.

Notice the flattened sternum on the lower right of the ostrich compared to a flying bird below with a much larger bone.

^{Above: Flying bird shows large keel for flight muscles by LeeLiyi, Jun 2006}

^{Left: Ostrich skeleton, Museum of Veterinary Anatomy, FMVZ USP Wagner Souza e Silva, Dec, 2015}

Ostriches live in small family groups called herds. An average herd is about a dozen birds, led by one dominant male and one dominant female, called pack leaders. When males are ready to breed, they make a booming sound using an air sac in their throats that can be heard over long distances. When a female approaches, the male will puff out his chest, bow to the female, and do a dance that includes much tail shaking. This is repeated several times until the female indicates whether or not she will mate.

Ostrich eggs in shallow sandy depression, Namibia, by Th Trede, Getty Images

A dominant male digs a shallow nest 9 to 10 feet wide and mates with several females. Each mating results in 7-10 eggs laid together in the one nest. Ostrich eggs are the largest of any egg in the world weighing about 3 pounds, equal to 2 dozen chicken eggs. One male and one female will take turns incubating about 20 of the eggs, while the remaining eggs are ejected from the nest. Babies hatch in six weeks and are the size of a chicken when born, but they will grow about a foot a month, reaching adult size in six months.

Ostrich toes & claws by Mirko Vuckovic, Getty Images

Ostriches are omnivores mainly eating roots, seeds, and leaves, but will also eat insects, rodents, and snakes. They lack teeth; and as with many birds, they ingest small pebbles to help grind their food in the stomach. They are most vulnerable when eating or protecting their nests, and predators include lions, cheetahs, hyenas, and jackals. When threatened, an ostrich will not bury its heads in the sand. The bird may lie down on the ground with its head and neck stretched out to present a lower profile. They may run away, but if that is not possible, especially when protecting a nest, they will stand their ground. Their legs and sharp claws are powerful enough to deliver a kick capable of killing an adult lion. Many predators will not attack an adult ostrich, but their eggs are a delicacy for predators, vultures and other opportunists.

Many farms raise these birds, harvesting feathers and leather for clothing, plus meat and eggs for food. Although they are not considered endangered, ostriches are still threatened by habitat loss and poaching. At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum you can view an adult ostrich, nest and eggs, plus see our new display on the skeletal structure of birds including our adult ostrich skeleton.

Rodents

Rodentia are the largest order of mammals in the world, encompassing over 40% of mammal species. A rodent is characterized by having two pairs of large front teeth, one pair in each of the upper and lower jaws. These are called incisors and are used for gnawing vegetation. They have no canine teeth, leaving a large gap between the four front teeth and their molars in the back of the mouth. Rodents can be found in all types of habitat everywhere in the world except Antarctica, New Zealand and a few oceanic islands.

Capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, use calls to warn others of danger and to find their young including purring, barking, cackling, whistling, whining, grunting, and chattering.

^{Capybara by Dick Culbert, Gibsons, B.C. Canada, May 2014}

The largest rodent is the capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, growing up to 140 pounds. But a majority of species are small animals, under 4 ounces, with bulky bodies, short limbs, and long tails. Compared to their overall size, the body’s surface area is large and contributes to a greater loss of heat than larger animals. To combat this, rodents create more body heat by being constantly active. They consume large quantities of food to meet high energy needs. Many species are active year-round, coming out during early morning and late evening hours to feed. Animals living in habitats with extreme temperatures may hibernate to escape the cold or estivate to escape the heat. These species conserve energy by adjusting their body temperatures to within a few degrees of the air temperature and slow other bodily functions, requiring less food and more rest.

North American beaver, Castor canadensis, hone their upper teeth into efficient biting tools and defensive weaponry.

North American beaver, *Castor canadensis,* by Steve, Washington D.C., Jul 2008

Incisors grow constantly their entire lives. The front surface is protected by a hard enamel shell. The back surface of the upper pair is soft and easily wears away from the constant rubbing of the lower teeth as vegetation is bitten off and chewed. This creates a chisel like edge on the top teeth that is an excellent cutting surface. Teeth are used to gnaw vegetation, dig burrows, and for defense, if attacked. If an animal does not gnaw enough vegetation, the growth rate of the teeth becomes greater than what is being worn away and health problems can develop leading to the inability to eat. This most often occurs in captive animals who are not provided with sufficient quantities of harder vegetation.

Fox squirrels, Sciurus niger, scamper up tree trunks, along branches, and are able to leap to nearby trees, in addition to being fast on the ground and good swimmers.

^{Fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, by Karly Tuminello, Jul 2020}

Food is mainly seeds, leaves, fruit and small invertebrates or insects. A internal structure called a caecum contains bacteria that assists in breaking down plant material into digestible form. Several rodents have eyes that protrude in a half dome from their head allowing them to see both ahead and behind. This wide field of vision allows the animal to easily detect predators. Their daytime eyesight is poor, but they can detect ultra-violet light, allowing excellent vision during twilight hours when they are most often active. Most rodents live in large social groups, but forage individually, using a wide variety of alarm calls to keep others informed when danger is near.

Naked mole-rats, Heterocephalus glaber, have strong jaws that use one-quarter of all the muscle tissue in their body.

^{Naked mole-rats, Heterocephalus glaber, by Roman Klementschitz, Wien, Dec 2003}

Humans often consider rodent species to be harmful pests. While they may carry bacteria and cause nuisance problems, they are also beneficial by eating weed seeds and insects, keeping populations of many pest species in check. Rodents are widely used in human culture as food, clothing, pets, and laboratory animals for research. Visit a museum or nature center to learn about the many fun facts of each family in this amazing group of animals.

Kangaroo rats, Dipodomys sp, hop to move around but can jump 6 to 9 feet, and they get all their water from the seeds they eat.

^{Kangaroo rat, Dipodomys, by U.S. Fish & Wildlife, Sep 2005}

Extinct & Endangered – pt.3

An endangered species is one that is likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or locally in a known range. In some instances, these species may be saved through habitat conservation, breeding assistance, and education. This final installment on Extinct & Endangered will take a look at three species in North America that have benefited greatly from such efforts.

The Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum, is the only venomous lizard native to the United States and is listed as near threatened. Their ranges are quite small, covering 700 to 3000 square feet. They spend most of their lives in underground burrows, and they are only regularly outside for a couple of hours each day during their mating season, from March to May. Gila monsters hunt small animals, and prey is eaten alive, head first. Venom is delivered through their saliva as the prey is chewed and acts to slow the prey’s reactions. While venom is not deadly to humans, it can cause swelling and severe pain.

^{Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum by Erin Donalson, Getty Images}

^{Gila Monster, Heloderma suspectum by Shoemcfly, Getty Images}

Gila monsters pose no direct threat to humans, usually living in remote areas, but still have a fearsome reputation that contributes to illegal hunting of the species. They were the first venomous animal in the United States to get legal protection from being collected, killed, or sold. As development threatens areas where the Gila monster is found, conservationists are moving populations to preserves where there is minimal interactions with humans. Breeding numbers in the wild are still robust, although captive breeding efforts have been started in zoos across North America. Education and preservation of appropriate habitat has so far kept this species off the endangered lists.

The black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, is listed as endangered, but increasing in population. Their native range includes southern Canada and the northern United States, but habitat loss and disease have reduced populations to only a few hundred. They are a playful member of the weasel family, using several vocalizations for communication including barks, chattering, and chuckling. They are nocturnal and rarely seen in the daytime. Prairie dogs, hunted in underground burrows at night, are their exclusive food source.

^{Black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, portrait by Delecrouix, Getty Images Pro}

^{Black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, at prairie dog burrow by kahj19, Getty Images}

The species was declared extinct in the late 1960s until a dozen individuals were found in Wyoming in the early 1980s. Deliberate extermination of prairie dog colonies, because they are considered a nuisance species, has had a significant impact on black-footed ferret populations. Habitat protection and captive breeding programs have been successful at boosting population numbers. There are now about 300 black-footed ferrets living in Wyoming and other sites in the north central and southwestern United States where individuals have been released. Habitat loss and disease are still constant threats, and scientists estimate that about 3,000 individuals will be required to save the species from extinction.

The California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus, the largest bird in North America, formerly nested in caves in high cliff faces along the southern California coast until real estate development claimed all of their habitat. In the 1980s, as the last 34 birds were captured, the species was declared extinct in the wild.

^{California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus, tagged, in flight by OldFulica, Getty Images}

Condors are slow flyers, soaring in great circles, searching for carcasses of dead animals to eat. They eat until they are full, and can go about two weeks between meals. Juveniles may take several months to learn to fly and land gracefully, without crashing. Condors reach reproductive maturity at four to six years of age, and can live over fifty years. After mating, females lay only one egg, and mating may not take place every year.

^{California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus, Grand Canyon by Blewulis, Getty Images Pro}

Even with slow reproduction rates, efforts to expand the population by hand-rearing and re-introduction to unaffected habitat have resulted in close to 450 birds back in the wild in California, Utah, Arizona, and the Baja. Still listed as an endangered species, the California condor is making great progress in rebuilding its population.

^{California Condor, Gymnogyps californianus by DonArnold, Mar 2024}

^{Introduction to Extinct & Endangered at Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum by DonArnold, Mar 2024}

Extinct and endangered species can be found in every habitat and location worldwide. Many are being helped by direct action with hand-rearing and habitat protection. Indirect action through new laws, conservation support, and education has also had a positive effect. Many of these species are on display at various nature museums including the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum. Plan a visit soon to learn more.

Extinct & Endangered – pt.2

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) gathers data through research and field projects on all known species of plants and animals. They work to educate people on conserving nature and sustainably using natural resources. The IUCN publishes a document known as The Red List providing the conservation status of all species. There are nine possible levels including Least Concern, Near Threatened, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered, Extinct in the Wild, Extinct, Data Deficient, and Not Evaluated.

An endangered species is one that is likely to become extinct in the near future, either world-wide or locally in a known range. Critically endangered species are at extreme risk of extinction in the immediate future. A species is vulnerable when its population and breeding numbers are at risk, but have a chance to improve. Several factors considered are the current population size, how fast the population has increased or decreased over a short period of time, whether breeding rates are high or low, and what threats exist from habitat loss, poaching, and invasive species.

^{Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

The Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis, spends northern hemisphere summers breeding on the Alaskan and western Canadian tundra. As the weather turns colder, they migrate to Argentina by flying east to the Atlantic Ocean, and then south. Although nests are built on open ground, they are difficult to find and study. Food includes berries, insects, and snails, but incubation and rearing habits have never been clearly identified. During migration in the mid-1800s, populations would darken the skies as tens of millions of birds followed the warmer weather. Eskimo curlews were hunted on both continents year-round. If a bird was wounded, the other flock members would circle back, becoming additional targets for hunters. Development cuts up large breeding areas to smaller sections reducing food sources and enabling predators to severely impact populations. The species is listed as critically endangered, although there has not been a confirmed sighting since 1963.

^{Proboscis Monkey, Nasalis larvatus, by Chris Smallwood, Jul 2013}

^{Proboscis Monkey, Nasalis larvatus, female with young by Martha de Jong-Lantink, Jun 2020}

The proboscis monkey, Nasalis larvatus, another endangered species, is found mostly in the mangrove forests in Borneo; it is one of the largest monkeys native to Asia. Living in swamps and lowland areas along rivers, they are excellent tree climbers and swimmers, having the ability to swim underwater for short distances. Their large noses, smaller in females and upturned in juveniles, are thought to make their calls louder and more attractive to the opposite sex. They communicate through a variety of calls to signal alarm and threat warnings, and to keep infants and group members close. Rapid loss of habitat to logging and oil palm plantations, plus hunting for their meat, considered a delicacy in some areas, have reduced populations by more than half in the last fifty years.

^{Whooping Crane, Grus americana, by Trish Gussler, May 2018; Whooping Crane, Grus americana, by Diana Robinson, Mar 2018; Whooping Crane, Grus americana, by Evangelio Gonzalez, Dec 2018}

The whooping crane, Grus americana, is one of only two crane species native to North America, and it remains on the list of endangered species although it may be starting a comeback. Birds build a nest on a slight rise in a marsh where one or two eggs are laid. Normally only one egg survives, and the juvenile stays with the parents for six to eight months. Populations were never large, but prior to European settlement, there were an estimated 10,000 birds. Hunting for meat and feathers, in addition to predation and habitat loss, drastically reduced population size from the mid 1800s to the early 1900s. Through several programs of captive breeding, wetland management, and extensive efforts to assist the juveniles in learning migration routes by following ultralight aircraft, populations have rebounded to about 600 today.

^{JSNM Extinct Endangered display; JSNM Eskimo curlew, Numenius borealis; JSNM Proboscis monkey face, Nasalis larvatus; JSNM Proboscis monkey, Nasalis larvatus; all pictures by DonArnold, Feb 2024}

In the final blog on this topic, we will take a look at a few success stories – species that have recovered with populations that continue to get stronger. Many nature museums have information and extinct species on display to learn from. All of the above species, and more, can be found at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, so please stop by, or visit a local nature museum where you live.

Extinct & Endangered

Extinction of a species is the total loss of all individuals of that species. There are many reasons a species may become extinct including natural disaster, climate change, and human related causes. Other species still living in the world may be classified as endangered, those that are close to extinction throughout all of their range, or those making a comeback after being endangered.

A species’ habitat is vital to its existence and includes the environment it lives in and all of its components: shelter, food, water, and more. A species that is moving toward extinction needs its habitat protected and preserved if the population is to survive. How many species are endangered is a hard question to answer because we have not identified all of the species in the world. This blog will take a look at a few species that became extinct in the last century.

^{Heath Hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, @ Delaware Museum of Natural History by Jim, the Photographer, Jul 2013}

^{Heath Hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

The heath hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, is an extinct sub-species of the greater prairie chicken. These large birds from the grouse family lived along the east coast of North America from New Hampshire to northern Virginia in forests dominated by pine, grasses, and low shrubs. They were a popular meal for settlers. Poaching and overhunting reduced their numbers drastically, leaving only a small existing population on Martha’s Vineyard by 1870. Further losses resulted from predation by hawks and feral cats. The practice of not of not allowing natural fires to burn resulted in the accumulation of excessive undergrowth, and a 1916 wildfire decimated most of the remaining population. The last few birds died in 1932.

^{Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, @ Field Museum of Natural History by opacity, Mar 2014}

^{Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, @ Redpath Museum of Montreal by Hotel Kaesong, Jun 2020}

The Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, was one of only three parrots native to the United States. They liked old growth forest and swamp habitat along major rivers east of the Rocky Mountains. Parakeets nested in hollow trees and lived in large, noisy flocks of several hundred birds. Clearing forests and draining wetlands for agriculture and development reduced populations as habitat was removed. The last birds disappeared in the early 1900s, possibly from poultry disease.

^{Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

^{Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, @ Cleveland Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

Passenger pigeons, Ectopistes migratorius, lived in large flocks east of the rocky Mountains in North America and were especially abundant in the Great Lakes area. At one time, their estimated population was five billion. They were fast flyers, able to reach 60 mph and fed on mast, fruits, and invertebrates. Living in large flocks made them easy to hunt, and pigeon meat was good eating. Habitat loss combined with hunting reduced populations slowly in the early 1800s and quickly toward the end of that era. The last bird died in 1914 at the Cincinnati Zoo.

Passenger pigeons played a significant role the development of eastern North American forests. Large flocks roosted together during thunderstorms and at night. Hundreds of birds could be found in one tree, where smaller branches, especially in the forest canopy, would easily snap from the birds’ combined weight. This opened up large holes in the canopy, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor and promote the growth of sun-loving species such as chestnut, pine, hemlock, and oak species. As flocks migrated from one area to another, forest biodiversity was positively impacted.

^{Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum images by DonArnold, Feb 2024: Carolina parakeet, heath hen, passenger pigeons female & male}

In the next blog, we will learn about endangered species. Many nature museums have information and extinct species to learn from. All of the above species, and more, are on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, so please stop by, or visit a local nature museum where you live.

Bird Beaks

Birds have an amazing ability: flight. They use their wings, equivalent to our hands and arms, to lift themselves into the air and keep themselves aloft. But they still need to be able to do all of the things that mammals use their forelimbs for, and for that, birds have beaks, also called bills.

^{Female mallard, Anas platyrhycnchos, by Traci L. Smith Images}

^{Mallard diving for food by Alexas_Fotos, Pixabay}

A bill has an upper and lower jaw bone covered with toughened skin. The edges of each bill may be serrated for cutting, grooved and etched for grasping, or smooth. On some species, edges are soft, pliable, and loaded with nerve receptors that can detect what is moving through the bill. This allows birds that siphon their food from murky water to detect food even when it is not visible.

^{Black skimmer, Rynchops niger, fishing by Nick Dale, Getty Images}

^{Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, by Stockomotion, Getty Images Signature}

The bill’s skin sheath constantly exfoliates, or peels. New skin constantly grows from underneath, drying and hardening to replace the old skin. Excess layers of skin grow at the bill’s tip where most of the wear and tear takes place. Skimmers, of the genus Rynchops, have bills that grow at twice the rate of other species. They feed by trailing their lower bill in the water as the fly, wearing the skin down at a faster rate. Other protuberances and colors may enhance the bill. Atlantic puffins, Fratercula arctica, grow a bright orange, yellow, and black bill extension only during breeding season.

Bill shapes vary greatly among bird species and are used in a variety of ways for feeding……

Pelicans, genus Pelecanus, have hooked upper tips and a large pouch hanging under the lower jaw allowing them to scoop slippery fish out of the water and hold onto them.

^{Pelican hooked tip & pouch by McCaig, Getty Images}

The long-billed curlew, Numenius americanus, has a slim, curving bill that can reach deep into sand and mud for insects, clams, and small crustaceans.

^{Curlew probing the beach by Dypics, Getty Images}

The American oystercatcher, Haematopus palliatus, can pry open oysters and other bivalves.

^{Black oystercatcher with clam by Victoria Morrow, Sep 2020}

Ruby-throated hummingbirds, Archilochus colubris, have long, slim bills for probing deep flower nectaries to sip the nectar inside.

^{Ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilobus colubris, by Mattcudaphotos}

Whippoorwills, of the family Caprimulgidae, have bills fringed with bristles to catch insects by swinging their bills left and right while in flight.

^{Eastern whippoorwill, Antrostomus vociferus, bill with fringe by Budgora, Jun 2022}

Close-up of Eastern whippoorwill bill with fringe

Bills make great multi-use tools for many other daily activities. These may include preening, building nests, digging, turning eggs over, defending oneself, attacking prey species, scratching, assistance when moving and climbing, and displaying color and shapes during courtship and breeding. Other bill shapes are shown on the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum’s ‘Bird Beak Adaptations’ slide below. Come to the museum to learn more about these wonderful adaptations and other fascinating birds facts.

Dinosaurs At The Museum

Dinosaurs roamed North America millions of years ago, and while they are no longer part of the wildlife, we are able to see, study, and learn from them at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum (JSNM). Bones, skulls, teeth, and stomach contents unearthed at various sites are housed in numerous worldwide institutions.

^{Triceratops at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Triceratops was a common visitor to areas of western North America in the late Cretaceous period, from 68 to 66 million years ago. The name is Greek meaning “three-horned face.” The animal’s distinctive skull has two long horns located above the brow line of each eye, and one shorter horn off the tip of the nose. The brow horns, situated high on the head, may have exceeded three feet in length on the largest animals. A frill, or bony structure surrounding the back of the head, makes the head seem larger than the skull alone. In Triceratops, the frill could exceed seven feet from side to side.

Triceratops were large animals standing 10 feet tall with a length, from nose to tail, of about 30 feet. Their teeth were long and intimidating, but these animals were actually vegetarians. The teeth were used to shear through fibrous plant material that was difficult to cut and chew. The horns were very strong. They were used for defense against predators and when dueling for territory with other Triceratops individuals.

^{Tyrannosaurus rex half skull at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Tyrannosaurus rex, Greek for “king of the tyrant lizards,” is another species from the western United States. These animals moved swiftly on two huge rear legs. The body weight was balanced over these legs by a long, heavy tail and a massive skull. A full grown adult was estimated to be 13 feet tall, 41 feet in length, and weighed about 10 tons.

The skull cast at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum has several openings, thought to reduce the mass of the bony structure. It is very wide at the back, tapering to a narrow nose in front. The eyes are situated to provide excellent binocular vision, allowing the animal to accurately judge size and distance while running at a good pace. This was helpful for trapping prey and avoiding attackers.

^{Artistic rendering of Edmontosaurus by DariuszSankowski, Pixabay}

^{Edmontosaurus femur at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Several other fossils found in North America are on display at the museum. One is a femur from an Edmontosaurus, a genus of hadrosaurid or duck-billed dinosaur that lived alongside Triceratops in the western U.S. This dinosaur was a plant eater that could move on either two feet or all four feet. It is one of the best-studied species in the world due to the large numbers of bones that have been found. The skull held several hundred teeth, although only a few were in use at any given time. The rest were ready replacements for teeth that broke or wore down from the abrasive plant material in its diet.

^{images clockwise: Diplomystus analis; Diplomystus dentatus; Icthyosaur Stenopterygius Quadriscisius; Knightia alta; Mioplosus; Notogonius Oscuius; Perca obtusa; Phareodus testis; Priscacara liops; Pterosaur Phyllurus Ramphrhynicus; all images by DonArnold, Oct 2023, JSNM}

Other fossils available to view at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum include several fish species from the Cretaceous period that can be seen in the gallery above. Come on out to the museum to see these fascinating specimens and learn more, or take a trip to visit a natural history museum near you.

Carnivorous Plants

Plants and insects have myriad relationships to one another. Some are mutually beneficial, as when plants offer nectar to feed insects which in turn pollinate the plants. Other relationships only benefit the insects when they feed on leaves, stems, and roots. For carnivorous plants, preying on insects to fulfill their need for nitrogen and other nutrients benefits only the plants.

^{Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula by Len Worthington, Aug, 2016}

Pitcher plants are carnivorous, living in bogs and fens found in warm weather areas. In North America, most species are found along the southeastern coastal states from Texas to West Virginia. Bogs are depressions filled with rain or melted snow, while fens are similar but get their water from surface or groundwater. Both types of wetlands are low in oxygen and nitrogen, very acidic, and often quite cold. These characteristics slow down the rate of decay in the vegetation of the wetland, further reducing the availability of nitrogen which is a vital component of chlorophyll, the compound used by plants, along with water, carbon dioxide, and energy, to photosynthesize sugar for food.

^{Tracy’s sundew, Drocera tracyi by Matthew Paulson, May 2022; Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula by Judy Gallagher, Jun 2022; White-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla, showing downward hairs by Aaron Carlson, Sep 2013}

Carnivorous plants use several strategies to attract and trap insects. Pitfall traps have slippery faced leaves forming a funnel with a pool of digestive enzymes waiting at the bottom. Downward facing hairs on the leaves make it harder for insects to climb out. Some plants use an opposite strategy and cover their leaf surfaces with a sticky secretion, trapping any insects that land on them. Still others have a leaf-like structure made of two halves that snap together when an insect lands on an inner surface, trapping the insect inside. In both of the last two instances, digestive enzymes are then released to cover, kill, and break down the insect body for absorption by the plant.

^{White-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla, traps separated from flowers by NC Orchid, Apr 2016}

^{Two-spotted bumblebee, Bombus bimaculatus by Judy Gallagher, Jun 2022}

Carnivorous plants are insect pollinated and must be able to attract pollinators without trapping them. All of the plant species go through a dormant period as seasonal temperatures get cooler. Traps die back and are regrown when warmer weather returns. In several species, flowers bloom and attract pollinators with nectar, completing fertilization before traps develop. Other plants separate the flowers and traps by a physical distance. Traps usually lie close to ground level to attract crawling insects, and flowers are grown on top of tall stalks to attract flying insects. A third method is to make the flowers less attractive to potential prey, and make the traps less attractive to potential pollinators. This is achieved by using different colors, patterns, and scents on flowers and traps.

^{Metallic green sweat bee, Agapostemon sericeus by Dann Thombs, Aug 2008}

^{Cobra lily, Darlingtonia californica by Charles Peterson, Mar 2018}

Whether you are growing these unique plants at home or viewing them in a botanical garden or out in the wild, some of the plants and their pollinators to watch for include the white-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla and the two-spotted bumblebee, Bombus bimaculatus; the cobra lily, Darlingtonia californica and the mining bee, Andrena nigrihirta, Tracy’s sundew, Drosera tracyi and the metallic green sweat bee, Agapostemon sericeus, and the Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula and any of the hoverfly species, Toxomerus sp.

^{Bog landscape by Chris Moody, Jun 2009}

Beat The Heat

This week, the weather has been hot for the upper Midwestern U.S. with temperatures topping out above 100°F. Combined with high dew points in the mid-70s, the heat index temperature was upwards of 110°F. Here are some ways that plants and animals keep cool in the extreme heat.

^{Mojave Desert by LezusRocks, Getty Images}

^{Kit fox at entrance to desert den by Stevelenzphoto, Getty Images}

Desert environments, where hot conditions exist daily, are home to numerous animal species that live underground. Heat from the sun penetrates soils and sand layers for several inches, but at 20″ below the surface of the sand in the Mojave Desert, temperatures are fairly constant around 86°F while the surface may be over 110°F. Few large mammals are known to use burrows, although kit foxes and humans are two examples. Basements and lower levels in buildings are often preferred areas on hotter days.

^{Shaded walk in the woods by Felixmizioznikov, Getty Images}

Shade from trees is highly effective in creating cooler areas. Leaves are lighter in color than most soils and paved areas, and leaves reflect much of the sun’s radiation upwards, away from the shady area underneath. Denser foliage and rough leaf textures enhance the cooling effect. Under a shade tree, temperatures may drop up to ten degrees and other surfaces no longer exposed to direct sunlight, including our skin, may be 20 to 40 degrees cooler.

^{African elephant by Petr Polak, Getty Images: Black-tailed jackrabbit by Rancho_Runner, Getty Images; Fennec fox by Nattanan726, Getty Images}

Vasodilation occurs when blood vessels near the skin’s surface expand so more blood flows next to the skin. Many animals living in hotter climates, including fennec foxes, black-tailed jackrabbits, and African elephants, have large ears with broad, flat surfaces devoid of hair, fur, or other insulation. The ear’s large surface area is covered by a thin layer of skin and blood vessels. During hot weather, heat carried in the blood through the ear is readily lost to the outside environment, providing a cooling effect for the rest of the body.

^{Large crowd by Shaunl, Getty Images Signature}

Evaporative cooling is another method through which heat can be dissipated from a body. Trees use this method by losing water vapor through their leaves during photosynthesis, cooling the air under the leaves. Humans employ this method in a process called sweating. We lose warm water through skin pores directly to the air around us. Sweating also moistens our skin’s surface, indirectly providing additional cooling as air moves across the skins surface and wicks away additional heat. An important aspect enhancing the effectiveness of this method is our posture. Being supported by two legs, rather than four, exposes much less surface area to the direct rays of the sun, and much more surface area to air currents.

^{Forest path by Inga Nielsen, Getty Images}

While sweating is good for cooling, it is removing water from the body, which must be replaced for the process to continue. Exposure to today’s temperature extremes may result in a loss of three gallons of water or more from an average-sized human. As you are out enjoying nature during hot days, remember to keep hydrating to stay cool and keep other bodily systems healthy.

Bee An Early Pollinator

There are over 20,000 species of bees world-wide, and more species are found every year. Bees are important pollinators, especially in early springtime. Other pollinator species abound, and all are important to the life-cycle of flowers, but bees are thought to increase seed production by about 70%.

^{Dandelions on day 100 by Mike Deal, Apr 2010}

The bees we see in our gardens are all adults, emerging from their nests between early spring and late summer. The first to emerge are the bumblebees. They have wingbeats of about 200 strokes per minute and a metabolic rate that is double that of a hummingbird, allowing them to generate plenty of body heat to stay warm during cool spring weather. Orchard bees are the next out as soon as daily temperatures stay in the mid-50s. Native honeybees may also come out at about this time, but imported bees cannot fly in temperatures less than 60˚F. Early blooming flowers including dandelion, jewelweed, aster, goldenrod, and clover, are important sources for pollen and nectar in spring.

^{Honeybee covered in zucchini pollen by John Kimbler, Getty Images}

As crop plants start to flower, including fruit trees and vegetables, a large pollinator workforce is needed. Almost one-third of the food consumed by humans comes from plants requiring pollination. As pollen is collected by bees, the grains are spread over the bee’s body, allowing some of those grains to rub off and pollinate subsequent plants as the bee follows a route visiting various flowers. Adult bees feed mostly on nectar, eating very little of the pollen they collect. Pollen is brought to the nest to feed their young.

^{Bumblebee in flight with loaded corbicula by mirceax, Getty Images}

Honeybees and bumblebees have a bare spot on their back leg called a corbicula, surrounded by inward curving hairs. As pollen is collected from each flower, it is scraped into this holding area, which may amount to 20% of their body weight while in flight. After landing, a bee grips a flower tightly with its jaws and legs. Snuggling close to the anthers, the bee vibrates and dances to disrupt the pollen inside and let it fall onto their bodies. They proceed to groom all the pollen grains into the corbicula before moving onto the next blossom. When the corbicula full, the bee will fly straight to the nest, unload all of the pollen, and return immediately to where they left off to collect more.

^{Honeybee collecting pollen into scopa by baianliang, Getty Images Signature}

Other bees store pollen in scopa, tufts of hair on their legs and abdomens. As pollen covers the bee during its flower visits, the four front legs are used to scrape the pollen down past their abdomen where the two back legs pack it into the scopa. Some bees may carry the pollen dry, and others may mix in a little nectar to form a dough-like substance that easily sticks to their body hair.

Brown honeybee heading into narrow opening by Gregory Johnston

Buzz pollination video @ This Vibrating Bumblebee Unlocks a Flower’s Hidden Treasure | Deep Look

Pollen collection has resulted in the development of several adaptations found among many bee species. Electrostatically charged body hair attracts pollen. The charge is a result of air moving across the body while the bee is in flight. When plants are small enough that only the bee’s head fits inside, hooked hairs on faces and under chins allow easy pollen collection. Some plants keep pollen in anthers, long tubes that must be turned upside down and shaken to release the pollen. Many bee species use buzz pollination, hanging onto the anthers to tip them, then vibrating their wing muscles to loosen the pollen, allowing it to fall on themselves.

^{Red head bee, Pachyprosopis eucyrta, licking up nectar by Jean&Fred Hort, Mar 2014}

Nectar provides carbohydrates in the form of sugars and amino acids. Bees use their tongues to lick it or suck it up. Several species have longer tongues for use on deep-necked flowers. Honeybees collect nectar and bring it back to their hives to store it. Over time, some of the water content evaporates, forming honey. This is used as food over winter or at times when other food is scarce. Some bumblebees have been shown to also collect and return nectar to the hive, but don’t create true honey. This nectar is used as nourishment for the hive-bound queen only, not as a food source for the entire colony.

As we begin to see the many blossoms of spring and summer, remember that adult bees are only out in our gardens for a short period of their lives. We can assist their work as pollinators by allowing early spring flowers to finish their blooms before cutting them down.

^{Bumblebee on flower from skitterphoto, Pixabay}

^{Bumblebee collected pollen by vinkirill, Getty Images}

Boreal Forest in Winter

The boreal forest is the largest tract of woodland on earth covering 11% of all land area, half again as large as the Amazon rainforest. It stores 30% of the sequestered carbon on earth. The area also contains a mosaic of wet meadows, ponds, lakes, marshes, and bogs interlaced among the trees. Tree species include many conifers, dominated by spruce, plus aspen, birch, willow and alder. The animal life is abundant, with every species that was there before European settlement still remaining.

^{Boreal Forest panorama by Mliberra, getty Images}

The boreal forest is distinguished by short, hot, wet summers and long, dry, cold winters. When the last glaciers retreated northward, many holes and fissures were left behind. As the ice melted, all of these depressions were filled with water. The underlying geology is mostly granite shield, a rock layer that holds the water in and contains few minerals that dissolve in water, yielding very clear water that does not promote algae or bacteria growth. Most lake life is found in the shallow, warmer edges which also provide support to nearly all of the land-based fauna.

^{From upper left clockwise: Alder tree by Mantonature, Getty Images Signature; Spruce trees by Hannu Koskela, Getty Images; Willow tree by smarko , Pixabay; Aspen trees by Adamisovitsch, Getty Images}

Winter time presents many challenges including less sunlight, colder temperatures, less available water, less food and shelter, and increased severe storms. Animals that are active daily have higher energy requirements in winter. They must often change their dietary sources to whatever is available in winter. Grey squirrels and beavers cache food during warmer periods. Birds eat foods higher in calories such as nuts, seeds, dried fruit, and insects found under tree bark. When changes are consistent from year to year, species develop adaptations to meet the requirements of each season and are able to live comfortably throughout the year.

Shelter becomes not only a place to hide from predators, but also provides protection from weather extremes. Snow of different thicknesses and weight covers the landscape. Snow is also a great insulator, keeping cold winds away from exposed skin. There is normally a layer of air between the ground and the snow cover immediately above. Temperatures in this space are warmer than the exposed air above the snow creating a winter habitat that is vitally important for many species. Mice and voles create burrows under the snow where they can huddle together for added warmth. Similarly, air pockets surrounded by a heavy growth of conifer needles create spaces above the snow cover for birds and some larger mammals to shelter. And many larger species will nestle into the snow pack to shelter from storms and wind.

^{Spruce grouse by Impr2003, Getty Images}

^{Willow ptarmigan by Alex Berger, Mar 2022}

Spruce grouse, Canachites canadensis, and willow ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus, are not able to fly more than several yards. They grow feathers on their feet to insulate them and aid in traction. Grouse use the air layer at ground level to shelter in.

^{Portrait of a snowshoe hare by Jim Cumming, Getty Images}

^{Canada lynx by Carol Gray, Getty Images}

Ptarmigan, along with snowshoe hares, Lepus americanus, and short-tailed weasels, Mustela erminea, all change color to pure white to hide from predators. Snowshoe hare and Canada lynx, Lynx canadensis, have very large feet that aid in walking on snow without sinking in. Arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus, are winter specialists with compact bodies and short legs and ears that limit their exposure to cold, and large, furry paws that enable them to walk on top of the snowpack. With their long, bushy tails wrapped around their heads, they can withstand winds and temperatures to fifty below zero.

^{Stayin’ warm, Arctic fox by PEDRE, Getty Images Signature}

You can learn more about this cold but wondrous habitat by searching online for boreal forest, referring to the southern portions of the habitat, or taiga, referring to the northern portions. Also, look for information concerning seasonal adaptations for species in your own area, or visit a local natural history museum such as the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum in Lisle, Illinois.

Sloths

Sloth, a word used in English for over 400 years to mean slow, was used in the 17th century to name six species of slow-moving mammals native to the tropical rainforests of Central America and northern South America. Those in the genus Choloepus have two toes on their forelimbs and include Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, and Hoffman’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni. In a second genus, Bradypus, they have three toes on their forelimbs and include the pygmy three-toed sloth, Bradypus pygmaeus, the maned sloth, Bradypus torquatus, the pale-throated sloth, Bradypus tridactylus, and the brown-throated sloth, Bradypus variegatus.

^{Hoffmann’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni, by Leyo, Jul 2008}

^{Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, at London Zoo by Dick Culbert, Nov 2007}

Sloths are 24″ to 30″ in length, weighing 8-17 pounds. They have rounded heads with tiny ears, and their forelimbs are almost twice as long as their hind limbs. Three-toed species have a small, stubby tail. Limbs are adapted for hanging and grasping, while strong claws help to support the weight of the animal. About half their body weight is from the undigested food in their stomach, which is constantly filled. Sloths have an unusual number of vertebrae in their necks, either six or nine compared to most mammal species that have seven. This allows them to almost look backwards, being able to turn through a 270˚ arc.

^{The most common sloth is the Brown-throated sloth, Bradypus variegatus, shown here in its native habitat at Cahuita National Park in southeast Costa Rica… by Christian Mehlführer, Feb 2007}

Everything about the sloth is slow: their daily routine, their feeding, their movements, and their metabolism. They are nocturnal, eating at night and spending most of the day hanging motionless, while sleeping. Their low-energy, leaf-based diet supports a slow-paced lifestyle. Sloths are primarily folivores, feeding on leaves and fruit of several tree species. They have a multi-chambered stomach with symbiotic bacteria to help digest fibrous vegetation in a slow process that can take several weeks to fully process a single meal.

^{Pale-throated sloth, Bradypus tridactylus, by Fernando Flores, Apr 2013}

^{Pygmy three-toed sloth, Bradypus pygmaeus, by Bernal Saborio, Jan 2017}

Sloths move very slowly, even when threatened, averaging just 13′ a minute. They rarely leave their arboreal habitat, except to defecate. This happens only once every eight days, when they go down to the ground. They are extremely awkward and exposed during these short periods. However, sloths are agile swimmers and often use this ability to move between locations. Having a low metabolism allows them to hold their breath underwater for up to 40 minutes. Slow movements also provide protection from predators that hunt by sight, looking for movement among the trees, including ocelots, jaguars, and harpy eagles.

^{Observe the tint of the green algae in the hair of this three-toed sloth, genus Bradypus, by HenryAlien, Aug 2008}

Sloths have long, shaggy hair that is home to a host of other organisms. Each strand is grooved, able to retain rain water, and hosts a symbiotic green algae. The algae gets shelter and water from the hair and provides nutrients to its host by absorption through the sloth’s skin. The algae is also a source of food for several other species including mosquitos, ticks, mites, beetles, and several moth species whose entire lifecycle depends on sloths. When a sloth goes down to the forest floor to defecate, female moths lay their eggs in the dung. Moth larvae feed and pupate in the dung, leaving several months later to fly up into the trees to find a mate in the sloth’s hair and begin a new cycle of life.

^{It is easy to imagine the grasping and defensive possibilities presented by these claws of Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, by Andy, Dec 2018}

Sloths have several predators, but their long, sharp claws make formidable weapons if they are attacked. However, their biggest threats come from poaching, deforestation, and electric wires as more forest acreage is being opened to development. Habitat destruction is a serious threat to the world’s rainforests, and supporting efforts to slow down or stop this process provides the best assistance for sloths and other rainforest species. You can observe these unique and interesting animals at many zoos, or learn more at your local natural history museum, including the South American display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University.

Arctic Adaptations

The Arctic circle will experience its coldest time of year this month, as the sun does not rise in the visible sky between October and March. Animals that live in this part of the world have developed many adaptations for living easily and comfortably in these extreme conditions.

Most arctic animals are either very small or very large. Small animals, like arctic foxes and arctic hares, easily burrow under snow and ice to create comfortable dens. Tight entrances and long passages help keep air trapped under a thick layer of snow that acts as insulation, minimizing contact with the much colder external air. Body heat from the den’s occupants warms the temperature even further. Large animals also use dens including ringed seals and polar bears.

_{Polar bear on ice pack by Christopher Michel, Jul 2015; Musk Ox by Malcolm Manner, Mar 2013; Moose & frozen sagebrush by Steven Robinson, Oct 2017}

Larger animals have a high body volume to surface area ratio, as is found in the shape of a ball. Internal heat is generated relative to body volume, and it is lost relative to surface area. Large, tubby animals including polar bears, musk oxen, and moose generate lots of heat while losing very little. Other adaptations help maintain this balance of heat and loss.

Shaking polar bear by TambakoTheJaguar, Mar 2016

Thick, hollow fur/hair traps air inside each strand as well as underneath its heavy layers. Paws are covered in thick fur for stability, grip, and warmth. Long, furry tails can be used as blankets to wrap around bodies and noses. Oil secreted from special glands coat outer layers of fur, hair, feathers, and skin protecting the animal from direct contact with freezing waters. In addition, oil repels water so that it quickly runs off when the animal is on land, keeping them dryer and less exposed to cold air wicking away body heat.

Huddling fur seals by Michael Sale, Nov 2006

Huddling reindeer by Ben Townsend, Nov 2005

Polar bears, arctic foxes, walruses, seals, and musk oxen all have blubber, a thick accumulation of body fat just below the skin layer. This prevents cold from penetrating the body cavities that contain vital organs. It can also be utilized for energy for movement or to create additional body heat. Huddling is another method used to prevent cold from getting to the center of a mass. Used by musk oxen, arctic foxes, walruses, seals, and arctic hares, staying close with a large group is warm and comfortable.

Reindeer, also known as caribou, are known by their long noses. Air follows a twisty route through the nasal passage before reaching the lungs. Interior walls contain many blood vessels close to the surface that warm the passing air up to seventy degrees before it enters the lungs. Warm blood running through arteries from the heart distributes body heat. By the time it reaches an animal’s extremities, it has cooled and not much body heat can be lost. Reindeer have countercurrent vascular systems where veins containing cool blood returning to the body’s core run adjacent to arteries with warm blood. The colder veins absorb heat so the body core stays warmer.

Arctic fox staying warm by Marc Dumont, Feb 2015

Polar bear portrait by Peter Kaminski, Jan 2005

Extremities are one body area where heat is easily lost and exposure to cold can be damaging or deadly. Arctic foxes and arctic hares have shorter ears, noses, limbs, and snouts than species in the same families living in temperate weather zones. Ringed seals lack any external ears. Musk oxen have short legs and tiny ears, as do polar bears. Many of these adaptations can be viewed in the wild, or at your local zoo. Natural history museums also have displays where we can learn about many cold-adapted species.

Why Do Woodpeckers Peck Wood?

Some central North America bird species, including chickadees, woodpeckers, nuthatches, and sapsuckers chisel cavities in dead or dying trees to create shelter and to find food. Many of these birds are year-round inhabitants, and their efforts are easier to observe during late autumn and winter when there are few leaves to obscure our view. Today we will investigate how beak sizes, beak shapes, and several other adaptations contribute to woodpecker woodworking skills.

^{_{Pictures above clockwise from top left: Yellow-bellied sapsucker by Keith Williams, May 2015; White-breasted nuthatch by Canopic, Feb 2021; Red-Breasted nuthatch by Doug Greenberg, Sep 2018; Black-capped chickadee by CCPoor, Mar 2012}}

Woodpecker beaks are thick and sturdy, with a chisel-like tip to cut away wood in small chips. The hard-hitting tip exerts about 1200 Gs of force up to twenty times each second. This amount of force is equivalent to a human hitting their head against a brick wall at 16mph. A human brain floats inside the skull surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. When our head stops suddenly the brain continues moving forward until it is stopped by the skull. If the force is hard enough, this may result in a concussion. A woodpecker’s brain fits snugly inside its skull and moves and stops in conjunction with skull movement. Inside the skull, the bone is spongy, absorbing energy from the brain moving after the skull stops, managing the impact without harm.

Pileated woodpecker started a new cavity by Peter Stevens, Jan 2020

Other bodily adaptations also help to control and dissipate the energy resulting from pecking activities. A woodpeckers top beak overhangs the bottom beak, forcing pecking vibrations downward, away from the skull and through the muscles to the rib cage. Additional ribs are present at the top of the rib cage, attaching strong muscles to the skull that assist in managing the vibrations.

Hairy woodpecker by Jerry McFarland, Jun 2014

A woodpecker’s body is held very steady by feet that are adapted to gripping in a vertical position, pulling the body tight to the trunk. At the same time, the pygostyle, a set of fused bones located at the base of the backbone with strong muscles running the length of the tail, allow the bird to stiffen the tail and wedge it against the tree trunk. Claws, feet, and tail provide strong structural support as the bird works to chisel out a cavity from solid wood.

Red-bellied woodpecker gripping tree with braced tail by Jim Mullhaupt, Jul 2014

A woodpecker’s eyes contain two additional organs not usually found in other bird species. The pecten and choroid surround the sides and back of the eye socket. They are filled with fluid right before pecking is started to compress the eyeball into the socket and minimize all vibrations affecting the eyes as the bill strikes wood. Additionally, an extra thick nictating membrane, the clear, third eyelid present in all birds, helps protect the eyes from flying chips.

Smaller woodpecker species, including the downy woodpecker, have beaks with less of a chisel shape and more of a point. The beak is used to punch through thin bark layers and pick out small insects from tunnels running under the tree bark. Insects living inside grass, weed stems, and galls can be easily extracted by a finely pointed beak.

Downy woodpecker on grass by Adam Buzzo, Feb 2018

Woodpeckers provide a vital role in forest habitats. Whether a species migrates or not, most will likely change locations for better food sources, warmer weather, or breeding at one or more times during the year. Each time they move, they create a new nesting cavity. As old cavities are abandoned, there are 40 or more other species waiting to use these cavities for shelter, protection, or hunting. As you take your winter walks, be on the lookout for active cavities among the woodland trees in your area – and the species that are actually using them!

_{Nesting northern flicker by Dagny Gromer, Apr 2021}

_{Nesting wren in woodpecker cavity by Rick Cameron, May 2010}

^{Nesting starling in woodpecker cavity by Rick Leche, Apr 2008}

Desert Habitat, pt.3

In the past two blogs, we have explored deserts and the plants which inhabit them. Animals native to these habitats have general adaptations for coping with temperature extremes, aridity, and finding water, food, and shelter. Strategies include hunting during cooler hours including at dawn, dusk, or overnight; obtaining water from sources other than standing water; burrowing underground to avoid temperature spikes and solar radiation; ability to conserve water in their body; ability to dissipate body heat; and being well-camouflaged. Look for each of these adaptations in the following species that live in our desert regions.

Greater roadrunner, Geococcyx californianus, by Tony Cyphert, Sep 2018

Ord’s Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys ordii, by Andy Teucher, Jun 2005

The greater roadrunner, Geococcyx californianus, can only fly for several seconds at a time, but can reach speeds up to 17mph when running. They hunt early in the morning, retiring to shade when temperatures heat up mid-morning. Water requirements are met from foods including grass and prickly pear cactus, plus prey that includes lizards, scorpions, and rattlesnakes. Roadrunners do not urinate, but can excrete salt and save the water. They have an un-feathered area under their chins used to dissipate body heat. Ord’s kangaroo rat, Dipodomys ordii, is another species that gets all of their water requirements from the seed they eat. Individuals live in underground burrows, coming out only at night to feed. They conserve water in their bodies and do not sweat or pant. They have many predators, but with a 9-foot jump and excellent hearing, they are hard to catch. Seeds are collected and stored in their burrows, and they will gain 50% more water from the underground humidity before being eaten.

Horned Toad, Phrynosomasp., by TJFrom AZ, May 2009

Gila monster, Heloderma suspectum , by Karla Kishinami, Apr 2012

Horned toads, Phrynosoma spp., are small, ant-eating lizards with thick scales to conserve water and deter predators. To escape a predator, these animals can squirt a directed stream of blood from their eyes up to five feet away. They are sandy-colored with undefined outlines allowing them to easily hide amid rocky outcrops. Normally active during the day, they can retreat to burrows or under rocks if temperatures become too hot. During winter, horned toads will spend a period of inactivity, called brumation, in underground burrows. The Gila monster, Heloderma suspectum, is another lizard with armor protected skin marked with black and pink coloration that camouflages them well in sandy soils. They shelter from daytime heat under rocks and shrubs, emerging in early morning or evening to hunt small mammals, lizards, insects, and bird eggs. One of only two venomous reptiles in North America, their venom adversely affects their prey’s nervous system. The short, thick tail stores water in fatty tissue for use when needed.

Tarantula, Aphonopelma sp., by Saguaro National Park, Nov 2020

Western coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus, by Ashley Wahlberg, Apr 2016

The tarantula, Aphonopelma spp., shelters in deep burrows lined with silk to prevent the sand from caving in. They are nocturnal hunters of insects, arthropods, and small lizards with a bite that delivers a small amount of venom to stun their prey. Venom immediately starts to break down tissue to liquify the meat, allowing the spider to use sucking mouth parts to draw in its meal. The Western coral snake, Micruroides euryxanthus, is brightly colored with red-white-black-white banding and venom that is twice as deadly as most rattlesnakes. They are very secretive, living under rocks or buried in the sand. Coming out at night or on some overcast days, they hunt for lizards and other snakes. Venom causes rapid paralysis and respiratory failure, although due to their small size and small amount of venom injected, they are not a threat to humans.

Like many environments, a healthy desert community exists when plants, animals, and habitat are all present and undisturbed. With much of the life in deserts underground, walking off trails and driving off roads can negatively impact what is under the surface. Removing plants and rocks used for water and shelter is equally damaging. I encourage you to get out, observe, and enjoy this unique habitat, or research many of the fun and interesting adaptations at a local natural history museum.

^{Pictures above clockwise: Bark scorpion by Josh More, May 2014; Cactus wren by Mick Thompson, Feb 2019; Jackrabbit, by Mark Gunn, Mar 2014; Javelina, Sonora Desert, by Richard Bonser, Jan 2005; Tarantula hawk wasp by Jim Mulhaupt, May 2010; Sonoran mud turtle by Grigory Heaton, Sep 2022; Round tailed ground squirrel by Wendy Miller, May 2022; Hoary bat by Michael Pennay, Sep 2009; Cactus deermouse by J.N.Stuart, Oct 2011}