wetland – Discover-Nature

Egg-Laying Mammals

Mammals are endotherms, animals that maintain their own internal body temperature, and they have three unique traits: they are covered with fur or hair; the young are fed milk from the mother’s mammary glands; and they have three middle-ear bones. Most mammals give live birth, but one group, the monotremes, are egg-laying mammals. Fossil evidence has been found of monotremes that once lived in South America, but all of the species alive today, echidnas and platypus, reside in Australia and New Guinea.

Monotremes have other unique traits such as lacking adult teeth and stomachs. Food is taken in by mouth, swallowed, and travels through the esophagus straight into their intestines, which contain the chemicals needed to break down the food and absorb nutrients directly into the bloodstream.

Monotremes are solitary animals, coming together once a year to mate. An egg takes nearly a month to grow inside the female’s body, receiving nutrients directly from her. The egg has a soft, leathery exterior; and once it is laid, hatching happens quickly, usually within several days. Babies are called “puggles” and are born with well-developed forelegs allowing them to crawl over the mother’s body. Females do not have teats. Milk is excreted through special pores and puddles directly on the skin of the female’s stomach for the babies to lap up. Monotremes will lay one to two eggs each year. Parental care is provided only by the female, and newborns stay with the females for four to six months.

^{Eastern long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bartoni, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

^{Western long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijnii, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

^{Sir Davids long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus attenboroughi, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

^{Short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, range map by Chermundy, Jan 2011}

Echidnas compose a group of four monotreme species that are nocturnal, spending most of the day hiding in fallen trees or empty burrows. With fur coats of darker brown or black, they are well camouflaged. All species forage for ants, termites, and other small invertebrates using a highly developed sense of smell to detect the trails and movements of their prey. As shown on the maps above, habitat for each species may include vast acreages or almost nothing at all. These secretive animals have not been well-studied, and accurate population numbers are not well-known.

^{Eastern long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bartoni, by Matteo De Stefano, specimen at MUSE}

^{Western long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijnii, by Jaganath, Mar 2006}

The Eastern long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bartoni, weighs 10-20 pounds, has no tail, and lives in the mountainous regions of New Guinea above 7,000 feet in altitude. It thrives on earthworms and insects using its long sticky tongue to easily capture and eat them. The Western long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus bruijnii, also lives in similar habitat west of the Paniai Lakes region of New Guinea. This species is the largest of the echidnas, weighing about 40 pounds. They have long, sharp claws used to dig earthworms and other insects from the ground. It is illegal to hunt either of these species, but both are considered delicacies and have been greatly affected by poaching, as well as habitat destruction.

^{Short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, by Fir0002-Flagstaffotos, Jan 2007}

The short-beaked echidna, Tachyglossus aculeatus, sometimes known as a spiny anteater, weighs between five and fifteen pounds. They have dark brown fur with cream colored quills made from modified keratin. A short tail and short but stout and strong limbs allow this animal to dig rapidly and easily tear apart logs in its search for termites and underground insects. Short-beaked echidnas spend much of their life underground and can tolerate low oxygen and high carbon dioxide levels. They have no sweat glands and cannot tolerate high heat, but will use their ability to swim in order to cool off during heat spells. During winter in Australia, the animal enters torpor, reducing its metabolism to conserve energy until waking in spring to mate.

^{Sir Davids long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus attenboroughi, specimen at Naturalis Biodiversity Center}

Sir David’s long-beaked echidna, Zaglossus attenboroughi, is the smallest echidna at about five pounds. This species is also solitary and nocturnal, coming together with others only once a year to find a mate. The female digs a well-insulated burrow for her single egg and takes care of her young for 4-5 months. These echidnas are critically endangered with population sizes unknown. The last one to be positively identified in the wild was recorded on a trail camera in 2023.

^{Duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, by Klausber, Mar 2012}

^{Duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, range map from the IUCN Database, Nov 2012}

^{Platypus puggles, by Faye Bedford, Jul 2009}

The duck-billed platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, has a streamlined body made for easy maneuvering in the water. They live about 15 years in the wild and can mate at age two; they will normally have more than one mate in their lifetimes. Puggles are born hairless at about 8″ in length and will nurse for 2 to 4 months before learning to swim. They have some strange looking features including a large, flat bill and legs that come off the sides of their body, making them awkward on land, but graceful in the water.

^{Duck-billed platypus electrolocation infographic by Chiswick Chap}

The platypus is a nighttime, underwater hunter, searching for shrimp, crayfish, and other small animals. Their bill is covered with electroreceptors that can detect electrical impulses given off by their prey, enabling them to find their food even in dark, murky waters and muddy bottoms. Without teeth, they collect their prey in cheek pouches until they return to the water’s surface. A hard plate that runs along the edge of their bill is used in combination with bits of stone to grind their food before swallowing it.

^{Duck-billed platypus hind foot spur by Elonnon, Aug 2005}

Spikes or sharp, hollow spurs, are located on each of the platypuses hind ankles. Primarily used during mating season when engaged in fights with other males to establish territory, the spike delivers venom when stabbed into another animal. The venom is not fatal to other animals including humans, but if a human is stabbed, the venom causes nausea, sweats, swelling, and excruciating pain that is not treatable with any known pain-killer including morphine. However, the venom is being used in medicinal studies. A hormone contained in the venom has been found to promote the release of insulin and lower blood sugar levels in diabetes patients. A second chemical compound being studied is a protein in the female’s milk that has been found effective in treating antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Monotremes are unique in the world of mammals, but very little is actually known about their daily habits, population ranges, and what is needed to protect these species. Learn more by visiting the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a natural history institution near you.

American Asters

As we enter early autumn, it is late in the growing season for the central United States, and many insect species are still actively looking for pollen and nectar as they get ready for winter. Migrating birds and species that overwinter here are also seeking daily meals. Fall flowering plant species are much fewer in number than summer blooming species, but include varieties of American asters, Symphyotrichum spp.; goldenrod, Solidago spp.; black-eyed Susans, Rudbeckia spp.; coneflower, Echinacea spp.; sedum, Sedum spp.; and anise hyssop, Agastache spp.

^{American Aster by Andrew McKinlay, Aug 2013; Anise hyssop by Steve Guttman, Oct 2011; Black-eyed Susan by Jodi Grundig, Aug 2009; Coneflower by Bonnie Leer, Jul 2008; Goldenrod by Cathy Baird, Aug 2013; Sedum by Eleanor Martin, Jul 2009}

In this blog, we take a look at American asters, which make up a genus of over 100 species of perennial plants, all of which are native to North America. Asters like full or partial sun and reach heights of between one and six feet. They display a variety of colors from white to blue to purple. They do best in wet soils. Asters are often grown in pots or used in borders, as well as being found in a variety of wild habitats including forests, savannas, prairies, and wetlands.

^{American painted lady on Pacific aster by TJ Gehling, Oct 2023; Gulf fritillary on white aster by Vicki DeLoach, Ot 2012; Leaf cutter bee, Megachile spp, on New England aster, by GreenRavenPhotography, Sep 2016; Metallic green bee on white aster by Jacqui Trump, Oct 2021; Pecks skipper, Polites peckius, on smooth blue aster, Symphyotrichum laeve, by Tom Potterfield, Sep 2016}

These asters are an excellent source of nectar and pollen sought by both long-tongued and short-tongued bees, butterflies, wasps, and beetles. All parts of the plant are edible, although some species may contain mild toxins, making the animal eating it ill. Leaves and stems are eaten by grouse, turkey, chipmunks, mice, and deer. The abundant seeds are available long after most other flower seeds have been consumed or buried. Large quantities of seeds are eaten by migrating bird species including dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis; indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea; American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea; and American goldfinch, Spinus tristis.

^{American goldfinch, Spinus tristis, by F Delventhal, Jul 2022; American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea, by Tom Benson, Nov 2018; Dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis, by Stan Lupo, Mat 2020; Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea, by Mitchell McConnell, Apr 2013}

Asters are sometimes referred to as a keystone species. Keystone species can be either plants or animals that are essential to maintaining the health and functions of the entire ecosystem to which they belong. The introduction or loss of a keystone species may significantly affect an entire ecosystem in either positive or negative ways. Populations of other organisms may be altered, habitat changes can be observed, and biodiversity can rapidly change. American asters, along with the other late blooming flower species, are an important food source late in the growing season for maintaining a healthy population of pollinators, migrating birds, and over-wintering wildlife.

To learn more about seasonal changes and how our native species are adapted to handle these conditions, consider a visit to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you.

Venomous Snakes Of Illinois

There are 40 snake species native to Illinois, and they are found in all types of habitat from woodlands and prairies to wetlands and urban areas. Of these, four species are venomous. A venomous snake is one that uses a chemical toxin to kill its prey. This internally developed chemical is delivered through a pair of hollow fangs in the upper jaw of the mouth. When the snake opens its mouth, the fangs drop down and venom is injected into the prey as the snake bites. The snake will then release the prey, waiting for the venom to kill it before swallowing the prey whole. Juveniles will inject less venom, but with the same potency as adults.

^{Pit viper Fang and Jaw Structure drawn by M Moran at Encyclopedia Britannica}

Venomous snakes in Illinois are all pit vipers, a sub-family of the Viperidae family of snakes. The pit, a large opening between the eye and the nostril, just above the upper lip, can detect heat given off by warm-blooded prey species. Their elliptically-shaped eyes is another characteristic that helps to identify venomous snakes.

^{Close-up of elliptical eye on Copperhead by Mark Dumont, Jun 2011}

^{Close-up of pit above upper lip on pit vipers, by Scott Ballard, IDNR}

Illinois venomous snakes are non-aggressive in nature, but will bite if cornered, harassed, or stepped on. Bites are usually not fatal in humans, but they can be quite painful, often resulting in swelling and possible infection. Vomiting, nausea, and tissue or nerve damage may also result. Anyone that is bitten should seek immediate medical attention.

^{Eastern Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix, by Peter Paplanus, Aug 2018}

^{Eastern Copperhead close-up, Agkistrodon contortrix, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2021}

The Eastern Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix, lives in the southern third of Illinois on wooded hillsides, river bluffs with sandstone or limestone outcroppings, and along forest edges. During the hot summer months, they may also feed on the abundant rodent populations in meadows or near abandoned buildings. The copperhead is about four feet in length and has a light brown back with one to two dozen reddish-brown colored hourglass-shaped markings along the back. The top of their head is a brighter red-brown.

^{Northern Cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus, by Virginia State Park Service, May 2016}

^{Northern Cottonmouth flashing white, Agkistrodon piscivorus, by Peter Paplanus, Aug 2022}

The Northern Cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus, resides in far southern parts of Illinois, living in swamps, sloughs, and oxbow lakes. At five feet in length, this heavy-bodied snake is a uniform charcoal or dark olive color, with dark crossbands and a tan to gray belly. When disturbed, its response is to face its attacker and open its mouth widely, displaying the bright white interior, earning the name of cottonmouth.

^{Timber rattlesnake close-up, Crotalus horridus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2023}

^{Timber rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2023}

Timber rattlesnakes, Crotalus horridus, live in both southern and northern areas along the Mississippi River and Illinois River valleys. Usually found in heavy timber with rock outcrops or bluffs, this snake, up to six feet long, is marked by two dozen black crossbars down a gray-green-yellow back. Its belly is light-colored with dark edges, and it shows a dark strip behind each eye. Timber rattlesnakes will hunt in any areas where there is a large rodent population. They are listed as threatened since we have seen sharp declines in the populations in recent years.

^{Massasauga Rattlesnake, Sistrurus catenatus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2021}

^{Massasauga Rattlesnake close-up, Sistrurus catenatus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2021}

The Massasauga Rattlesnake, Sistrurus catenatus, is found in small numbers scattered across the state, mainly in prairie wetlands and river floodplains. Listed as endangered in the United States, it has become quite rare in Illinois with only a couple sightings annually for the past several years. Massasaugas are about two feet in length, with a gray to light brown back and 30-40 dark, bow-tie shaped markings. Four to seven darker rings cover the tail. Their main prey is small rodents.

Venomous snakes have small ranges, staying close to home for hunting and mating. Their main predators include humans, birds of prey, and other snakes. Many have been killed by people with an unfounded fear of these creatures. Although they play a major role in controlling rodent populations, there has been little concern shown over loss of habitat due to draining of wetlands and other urban development. Plan a visit to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you to learn more about these mysterious, yet wonderous species.

Sounds of Spring

Thunder and heavy rain, soft rain and light wind, birds in the early morning, frogs in the evening, and maybe a coyote howl deep into the night are some of the sounds of spring. As cold temperatures ease into summer highs, walks through natural areas tend to be filled with many sights as well as opportunities to learn by being quiet and listening closely.

Calls and songs are used by many species for a variety of purposes. Thousands of birds are migrating through the area, especially on clear evenings, and calls help to keep birds together and establish who is the flight leader. Year-round species are re-establishing territories, using calls to warn intruders to stay away or warn family members of approaching threats. Frog species in particular are calling during evenings to find a mate, lay eggs, and begin the establishment of the next generation.

There are dozens of species active at this time of year, and as we have been taking nature walks on campus the last few days, here are some of the wildlife we are listening to (click on each picture to hear their call)…

^{Yellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata, Mirceax, Getty Images}

Yellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata, by Valerie Heemstra, 2024

^{Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, by KenCanning, Getty Images Signature}

Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, by Thomas Ryder Payne, 2022

^{Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum, by Irving A. Gaffney, Getty Images}

Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum, by Christopher McPherson, 2021

^{Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis, by Carol Hamilton, Getty Images}

Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis, by Lance A.M. Benner2017

^{Northern Parula, Setophaga americana, by Neil Bowman, Getty Images}

Northern Parula, Setophaga americana, by Richard E. Webster, 2023

^{Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina, by Irving A. Gaffney, Getty Images}

Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina, by David Tattersley, 2023

^{Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius, Mirceax, Getty Images}

Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius, by Thomas Magarian, 2024

^{Blue Jay, Cyanocitta cristata, by Miguel Opacic, Getty Images}

Blue Jay, Cyanocitta cristata, Sue Riffe, 2024

Bird songs have a structure and rhythm, and are repeated often to attract a mate, ward off rivals, or bond with a family member. Other calls give warning that danger is near, keep flocks together in flight, or create a pair bond, often between mother and chick.

Frogs and toads are mating and laying eggs in area ponds. Each species has its own distinctive call, used by the males to attract a mate, warn of potential danger, establish a territory, or to signal distress. Frog species being heard around campus at this time include the following (click on each picture to hear their call)…

^{American Toad, Anaxyrus americanus, by Mshake, Getty Images}

American Toad, Anaxyrus americanus, by Thomas Margarian, 2024

^{Boreal chorus frog, Pseudacris maculata, by Derwyn, Getty Images}

Boreal chorus frog, Pseudacris maculata, by Thomas Margarian, 2016

^{Spring peeper, Pseudacris crucifer by HuntImages, Getty Images Signature}

Spring peeper, Pseudacris crucifer by Paul Marvin, 2012

^{Northern Leopard Frog, Lithobates pipiens, by Jennifer Seeman, Getty Images}

Northern Leopard Frog, Lithobates pipiens, by Paul Marvin, 2015

Sometimes, coyote can be heard when walking in woodlands around campus late in the evening. There are a lot of different calls used by these canines to provide information to other individuals. You can listen below to a bark used to indicate a threat, a social call establishing an individual’s location, a begging call from a young one, and a howl audible over long distances to announce one’s presence. Other calls may include a woof to signal a low intensity threat, a yip to claim territory, a growl to threaten another animal, and a whine or yelp to show subservience to a more dominant individual.

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, barking by TakenPix, Getty Images}

Coyote, Canis latrans, bark by Paul Marvin, 2018

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, begging, by Keith Szafranski, Getty Images Signature}

Coyote, Canis latrans, begging call by Matthew L. Brady, 2025

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, social interaction by Michel Viard, Getty Images}

Coyote, Canis latrans, social call by Flor Sangermano, 2023

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, howling, by Keith Szafranski, Getty Images Signature}

Coyote, Canis latrans, howl by Paul Marvin, 2012

Additional wildlife sounds can be heard on campus around Lake Benedictine or in nearby forest preserves. Get out for a walk and be sure to listen throughout the day for bird species, and into the evening hours for frogs, toads, and coyotes.

Salamanders

Salamanders are in the order of amphibians named Caudata, which includes mudpuppies, newts, and sirens. There are about 760 species of salamanders worldwide and 121 species are endangered. With the exception of a few in the Amazon basin, they are found only in the northern hemisphere. They live in habitats that provide sufficient humidity levels to keep their skin moist, from sea level to nearly 15,000 feet in altitude.

^{Northern zig-zag salamander, Plethodon dorsalis, by John P Clare, 2016}

^{Marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

The smallest species are lungless salamanders of southern Mexico, growing to an inch in length. The largest species are the Chinese great salamanders, about six feet in length. They are often mistaken for lizards, having smooth or bumpy skin, but can be easily identified by their total lack of scales. All salamanders have a tail which is rounded in terrestrial species but slightly flattened and often crested in aquatic species. Most salamanders are grey, brown, or white, but a few terrestrial species are brightly colored. Cave dwelling salamanders often lack all pigment and appear pinkish-white in daylight.

^{* Western lesser siren, Siren intermedia nettingi, by Peter Paplanus, 2013}

^{Long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicauda longicauda, by Meghan Alessi, Getty Images}

Salamanders, other than cave-dwellers, tend to have well-developed eyes. Research shows they are very attuned to differentiating brightness, but cannot see colors. Their eyes are large and provide nearly 360 degrees of view. Salamanders have no external ears, but can detect vibrations received through their jaw bones. Although some species can emit small squeaks, salamanders have no vocal chords or voice box and do not use vocal communications. Their sense of smell is well-developed and plays an important part in locating prey and mates.

^{* Hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis}
^{alleganiensis, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga, by Alfred Crabtree, 2012}

Salamanders may have functional lungs, non-functioning lungs, or no lungs. All species have the ability to exchange gases directly through their skin and the membranes inside their mouth and throat, but this also requires that the skin remain moist at all times. Terrestrial salamanders depend on moisture found in deep leaf litter, holes in trees in temperate zones, or moisture collected in bromeliads growing on trees in tropical zones.

^{Four-toed salamander, Hemidactylium scutatum,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

Salamanders have three sets of glands located under the skin, covering their entire body. Mucous glands secrete a sticky liquid that is spread over their body keeping the skin from drying out. When salamanders are in the water, the mucous acts as a lubricant, enhancing their swimming ability. A second set, called the granular glands, produce toxins and odors unique to each species that helps to deter predators and attract mates. A third set of glands is a mixture of the first two, doing a little bit of the work of each.

^{Small-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum,}
^{by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

^{Tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum, by John P Clare, 2013}

Salamanders are not as noticeable as many other species. They prefer secrecy and out-of-the-way hiding places. Most species are active at dusk and into the nighttime. All salamanders are carnivorous, feeding on small crustaceans, insects, spiders, and their favorite food – worms. Predators include snakes, lizards, fish, birds, and small mammals. Salamanders defend themselves by exhibiting threatening poses and emitting toxins, many with a bad odor. As a last defense, they may voluntarily lose their tails to a predator, a trait known as autotomy. A new tail can be grown within a few weeks.

Salamanders are easy to care for and their habitats are easily duplicated making them widely distributed in the pet trade and for use in laboratories. Additional conservation impacts come from habitat fragmentation, or habitat degradation, or habitat loss due to draining of wetlands and forest clearing.

^{Northern slimy salamander, Plethodon}
^{glutinosus glutinosus,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus cinereus, by Steve Byland, Getty Images}

In Illinois, we have 20 species of salamanders, pictured throughout this blog. Seventeen are terrestrial and three are aquatic (*). Consider coming to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature museum near you to learn more about salamanders in your area.

Spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, by Louisianatreefarmer, Getty Images
Blue-spotted salamander, Ambystoma laterale, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
Central newt, Notophthalmus viridescens louisianensis, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dusky salamander, Desmognathus fuscus conanti, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
* Mud puppy, Necturus maculosus maculosus, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010
Three-toed salamander, Amphiuma tridactylum, by Peter Paplanus, 2016
Southern two-lined salamander, Eurycea cirrigera, by Peter Paplanus, 2021
Mole salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dark-sided salamander, Eurycea longicauda melanopleura, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010

Illinois Owls

Owls are found year-round in northern Illinois, and they come in several sizes and shapes and live in various habitats. Owls found near urban areas are often active only in the evening or at night, making them elusive to find and observe their behaviors. Native owl species have a highly varied diet, hunting almost every animal smaller than themselves from insects and crustaceans to small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Some of their unique characteristics and places to find them are highlighted below.

^{Barn Owl, Tyto alba pratincola, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum and Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

Great Horned Owls, Bubo virginianus, live in every habitat across North America, Central America, and parts of South America. Standing two feet tall with mottled brown and gray feathers, they are well camouflaged during nighttime activities. Their ‘horns’ are actually feather tufts sticking out above their ears, which may enhance hearing and make them easy to identify. Look for them at dawn and dusk in tall trees standing on the edges of open spaces. The Barn Owl, Tyto alba, hides in tree hollows or dense vegetation during the day, coming out to hunt at night. They are a foot tall with a distinct white face and chest and pale brown and gray backs. A high energy lifestyle requires them to eat more than other animals their size. They are mostly found in open fields near wooded areas that provide diverse habitat for prey.

^{Barred Owl, Strix varia by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Northern Saw-whet Owl, Aegolius acadicus by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

Three owls are daytime hunters, but not often found in urban areas. Barred Owls, Strix varia, have small territories, covering no more than a few square miles during their lifetime. They are brownish gray with dark stripes on their bellies. They hunt during both daytime and nighttime and have been known to eat carrion if it’s easily available. Look for them in wetlands with mature woodland cover nearby. Another daytime hunter, the Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus, is an abundant species standing about a foot tall and known by its brown speckles covering a cream colored undercoat, with a barred tail and wings and a light belly. Their diet is similar to other owl species, but they may also hunt rabbit and weasel. Look for them flying low to the ground in open areas including grasslands, meadows, and wetlands. The Northern Saw-whet Owl, Aegolius acadicus, is only six inches tall, with a round, light colored face and belly streaked with brown, and a brown back with light spots. They are highly maneuverable and can easily hunt in small spaces. These owls have incredibly sharp talons and beaks, and they are able to take down prey larger then themselves. They favor dense, mature forests, especially those containing conifers.

^{Eastern Screech Owl, Megascops aslo, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

The next two species are smaller, nighttime hunters, often found in urban areas. The Eastern Screech Owl, Megascops aslo, stands eight inches tall and is all grey or slightly reddish-tinged. This owl species has also been observed feeding on fruits and berries. They are found in forests, wetlands, and urban neighborhoods with mature trees. The Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, one of the most abundant owl species world-wide, is a foot tall, with black and brown plumage. They hunt by stealth, waiting on a perch for prey to come close, then pouncing. Look for them in urban settings with large trees and in many state park areas.

Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum

A winter only resident, the Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus, stands two feet tall with distinctive, almost pure white plumage. They are active both night and day, and can cover large distances in their daily hunts. A large, ferocious hunter, they can take down prey larger than themselves. They are found in a widely diverse set of habitats including open grassland, wetlands, shorelines, and several of our area’s larger airports.

We have many owls on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum. Come in and learn from our newest Illinois In Winter display or our owl and other raptor displays. We are closed for the holiday break, but consider visiting us as we reopen for the Spring semester in early January. Check out our schedule and make a reservation to come see us at https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/.

Illinois Owls

Owls are a type of raptor, a bird of prey with forward-looking eyes, large talons, and hooked beaks. Raptors are known for having the best vision of any animal, and they are skilled hunters found across all habitats. Other raptors include hawks, eagles, falcons, kites, and vultures. There are nineteen owl species native to North America, and eight of them are regularly found in Illinois.

^{Pictures clockwise above: Black Kite by Martine LIU, Getty Images; Golden Eagle by Timu Abasov, Getty Images; Red-tailed Hawk by BrianEKushner, Getty Images; Turkey Vulture by James Opiyo, Getty Images; Peregrine Falcon by Harry Collins, Getty Images Pro}

Owls have large eyes that look forward and provide a wide angle of view. Their binocular vision helps these birds easily spot prey and accurately judge distances when either stationary or in flight. An owl’s eyes cannot move within the eye socket, so the owl must move its entire head, which is capable of rotating 270 degrees to see completely around itself. Their vision is extremely sensitive to light, and they are capable of hunting when conditions are quite dark.

^{Barn Owl face by QuentinJLang, Getty Images}

^{Great-horned Owl looking back by Celine Bisson, Getty Images}

The feathers on their round faces help to direct sound into their ears, which are located on either side of their head. Their ears are small openings covered by feathers that can enhance and separate sound waves, working like binocular vision, allowing the bird to identify how far and in which direction a sound originates. Their enhanced ability to detect movement around themselves, coupled with excellent vision, makes these birds of prey one of the top hunters in their environment.

^{Owl beak closeup by GrahamH, Pixabay; Snowy Owl talons by WWing, Getty Images; Black fur in owl pellet by Justin Smith, Getty Images}

Sharp beaks and talons are used to capture and hold prey, and to easily tear apart meat. All raptors have eight toes ending in a talon, or sharp claw, made of keratin. Owl talons are long and curved and are used to easily grasp a branch or a prey animal. Their beaks are made of bone covered with keratin, with very sharp edges. They have no teeth to chew food, and they eat their prey whole or in large chunks. Whatever is not digestible, including bones, fur, and feathers, is compressed into a wad in the owl’s mouth and spit back out as a pellet. An Investigation of owl pellet contents can reveal the prey the owl is currently eating.

Fringed ends of owl flight feathers by ElvisCZ, Pixabay

Owls have fringed outer edges to their flight feathers that deaden almost all sound made while flying, making it difficult for prey to detect an owl coming for them. An owl’s large, rounded wings and short tail provide great maneuverability while flying. Their excellent vision, hearing, and flight maneuverability allows them to hunt at night in areas with numerous obstacles including woodland and urban areas.

In the next blog, I will take a closer look at the owls in Illinois. At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, we have several displays that highlight the various characteristics of owls and other raptors. We are closing for the holiday break, but consider visiting us as we reopen for the Spring semester in early January. Check out our schedule and make a reservation to come see us at https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/.

Fossils of Illinois – part 2

Ocean habitats, including the shallow seas that covered the Midwest during the Cambrian Period, have given us many fossils. The following species are all found in Illinois fossil records, and all have forms still alive today. Bryozoans live in colonies with lacy, branching, or screw-shaped skeletons peppered with many tiny holes in which the animals reside. Brachiopods attach to any surface by a fleshy appendage extended from their hard shells and were abundant in ages past compared to present day. Snails are plentiful in the fossil records along the banks of all major rivers. Cephalopods including squid, octopus, and cuttlefish, were shelled animals in their ancient forms. They could grow to nineteen feet, but all of the shelled forms are now extinct. Pelecypods, also known as bivalves, include mussels, clams, oysters, and scallops, and are found in the oldest rocks in the Midwest.

^{Perca obtusa at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Cephalopod, Placenticeras placenta, Texas at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Priscacara liops at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Insect fossils are rare, although more than 100 species have been found from the Pennsylvanian period in coal deposits of Illinois. Many species lived in swampy areas at the edge of ancient seas. Most fossils, often found in ironstone, a sedimentary rock, are of now extinct species. Some of these species include assassin bugs, katydids, millipedes, and centipedes. One such extinct insect was the giant millipede, Arthropleura, estimated to be eight-and-a-half feet in length. Dragonflies, damselflies, and cockroaches in both ancient and present-day forms have been identified.

^{Fossil Crab Carapace, Zanthopsis vulgaris, Pittsburgh Bluffs Formation, Oregon at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Nautilus at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

*Icthyosaur Stenopterygius Quadriscisius* at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023

Vertebrate fossils found in the Illinois region from extinct species are mammoths and mastodons, plus animals still commonly occurring today including horses, deer, and humans. Smaller species of fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are all present in the fossil record of the Midwest. As you move further west, larger species from the Mesozoic and Cenozoic ages become common finds. These include dinosaurs, camels, and saber-toothed tigers.

^{Pennsylvanian Period stump, possible Sigillaria at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Pecopteris miltoni, Mazon Creek, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Tree bark fossil, Mazon Creek, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023

Plant species found in the fossil record are abundant. Many fast growing fern and tree species litter the coal deposits brought up from strip mining in Illinois. Giant scouring rushes and seed ferns, now all extinct, are relatives of today’s horsetail plants. Many of these were common ferns in ancient times and grew to heights of fifty feet or more.

^{Tully Monster, Tullimonstrum gregarium, at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

The Tully Monster, Tullimonstrum gregarium, was named the Illinois state fossil in 1989. It was a soft-bodied animal that lived during the Pennsylvanian Period, 300 to 315 million years ago. With a smooth, tapered body and large tail fins, it had an oval, segmented body that grew to about 12″ in length, and was at home in the shallow, tropical seas that covered this area. The first fossil was found in 1958, and no specimen of this animal has ever been found outside of Illinois.

You can view and study the Tully Monster and other fossil specimens at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, and many other representative specimens can be viewed in most natural history museums. While fossils have been well-studied over the past several decades, there are many facets of each specimen and the environments and habitats they lived in still to be discovered.

Gallery of fossils from upper left clockwise: Fossil variety at JSNM; Nothosaurus vertebra, Rudersdorf, Germany at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023; Fossil variety at JSNM; Pterosaur phyllurus ramphrhynicus, Jurassic period, at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023; Ptychocarpus unitus, Mazon Creek, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023; Fossil variety at JSNM;

Fossils of Illinois

Fossils, remnants of organisms that lived in the past, can be found worldwide. Located throughout Illinois in strip mines, rock quarries, and along cliffs, bluffs, and river banks, many fossils are found grouped together from a specific age in geologic time (see the sidebar below). Knowing the various groups of animals that lived during that age helps us to identify other remains found in the same area.

^{Fossil crustacean, Rauna angusta, Solenhofen, Germany at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Trilobyte, Armonia elongata at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

In order for a fossil to form, an organism that dies must be quickly covered with sediment or amber before decay or erosion sets in, or it is eaten by a scavenger. Soft tissues dissolve within hours of death, and they are rarely found in fossils. The harder parts of an animal or plant species such as bones, teeth, shells, and woody tissues may be covered quickly and preserved. Some fossils are formed by sediment covering the organism, then drying while parts of the organism slowly dissolve. This results in a mold which can be filled with more sediment that hardens to create a fossil. Other fossils are formed when insects damage a plant, which releases its sap, called amber, to heal the damage. Amber may trap and cover the insect, then dry and harden creating an insect fossil inside.

^{Diplomystus analis at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Decapod, Acanthochirus longipes, Bavaria, Germany at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Knightia alta at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Let’s investigate a few fossils found in the Midwest. During the Ordovician and Cambrian Periods, Illinois and much of the Midwest was covered with shallow seas. Many of the fossils found today are from sea creatures that lived on that ocean bottom. Foraminifera, excellent indicator species for finding oil, are one-celled organisms that live in coastal waters and river estuaries. They ingest sand and minerals and secrete a jellylike protoplasm that hardens into a shell, forming a chamber. As they grow, subsequent secretions add more chambers in different shapes and sizes including spherical, tubular, and spiral. Foraminifera anchor themselves to the bottom of the ocean and feed on food particles of algae, bacteria, and detritus flowing through the chambers in the water current.

^{Mioplosus at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Notogonius Oscuius at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Trilobyte, Phacops rana at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Sponges and corals may live singly or in colonies of hundreds of individuals. They are found anchored to the bottom of both saltwater and freshwater seas. Corals have a hard skeleton divided into many open chambers. Sponges have hard, dense skeletons that still allow water to flow freely through. Both organisms breathe by extracting oxygen and feed by filtering bacteria and detritus from water currents flowing around them. They also filter carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous from the current creating a healthier habitat for other aquatic organisms. In northern Illinois, fossils are commonly found from the Cambrian era.

^{Fossil Sea Urchin, Holectypus planatus, Texas at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil Crinoids, Dichocrinus inornatus, Hampton Formation, Iowa at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Echinoderms, including star fish and sea urchins, can be found sparingly in the fossil record in Illinois. They have an external skeleton of calcium with tube-like feet extending below used to propel themselves over the ocean bottom or pry open shells of prey organisms. Blastoids, an echinoderm also known as a “sea bud,” with a mouth on top of a small round structure, are commonly found in river banks and bluffs. Crinoids, often called sea lilies, have several clustered discs with a long stem anchoring them to the ocean floor. After death, even as the stem dissolves, single discs are often preserved as fossils in limestone beds.

^{Diplomystus dentatus at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Phareodus testis at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

^{Fossil decapod, Paneus sp., Will County, IL at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

We have numerous fossils on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, and many more can be found in other natural history museums. In my next blog we will continue to explore other types of fossils found in the Midwest.

^{Fossil Trilobyte, Flexicalymene retorsa at JSNM by DonArnold, Oct 2023}

Carnivorous Plants

Plants and insects have myriad relationships to one another. Some are mutually beneficial, as when plants offer nectar to feed insects which in turn pollinate the plants. Other relationships only benefit the insects when they feed on leaves, stems, and roots. For carnivorous plants, preying on insects to fulfill their need for nitrogen and other nutrients benefits only the plants.

^{Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula by Len Worthington, Aug, 2016}

Pitcher plants are carnivorous, living in bogs and fens found in warm weather areas. In North America, most species are found along the southeastern coastal states from Texas to West Virginia. Bogs are depressions filled with rain or melted snow, while fens are similar but get their water from surface or groundwater. Both types of wetlands are low in oxygen and nitrogen, very acidic, and often quite cold. These characteristics slow down the rate of decay in the vegetation of the wetland, further reducing the availability of nitrogen which is a vital component of chlorophyll, the compound used by plants, along with water, carbon dioxide, and energy, to photosynthesize sugar for food.

^{Tracy’s sundew, Drocera tracyi by Matthew Paulson, May 2022; Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula by Judy Gallagher, Jun 2022; White-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla, showing downward hairs by Aaron Carlson, Sep 2013}

Carnivorous plants use several strategies to attract and trap insects. Pitfall traps have slippery faced leaves forming a funnel with a pool of digestive enzymes waiting at the bottom. Downward facing hairs on the leaves make it harder for insects to climb out. Some plants use an opposite strategy and cover their leaf surfaces with a sticky secretion, trapping any insects that land on them. Still others have a leaf-like structure made of two halves that snap together when an insect lands on an inner surface, trapping the insect inside. In both of the last two instances, digestive enzymes are then released to cover, kill, and break down the insect body for absorption by the plant.

^{White-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla, traps separated from flowers by NC Orchid, Apr 2016}

^{Two-spotted bumblebee, Bombus bimaculatus by Judy Gallagher, Jun 2022}

Carnivorous plants are insect pollinated and must be able to attract pollinators without trapping them. All of the plant species go through a dormant period as seasonal temperatures get cooler. Traps die back and are regrown when warmer weather returns. In several species, flowers bloom and attract pollinators with nectar, completing fertilization before traps develop. Other plants separate the flowers and traps by a physical distance. Traps usually lie close to ground level to attract crawling insects, and flowers are grown on top of tall stalks to attract flying insects. A third method is to make the flowers less attractive to potential prey, and make the traps less attractive to potential pollinators. This is achieved by using different colors, patterns, and scents on flowers and traps.

^{Metallic green sweat bee, Agapostemon sericeus by Dann Thombs, Aug 2008}

^{Cobra lily, Darlingtonia californica by Charles Peterson, Mar 2018}

Whether you are growing these unique plants at home or viewing them in a botanical garden or out in the wild, some of the plants and their pollinators to watch for include the white-topped pitcher plant, Sarracenia leucophylla and the two-spotted bumblebee, Bombus bimaculatus; the cobra lily, Darlingtonia californica and the mining bee, Andrena nigrihirta, Tracy’s sundew, Drosera tracyi and the metallic green sweat bee, Agapostemon sericeus, and the Venus flytrap, Dionaea muscipula and any of the hoverfly species, Toxomerus sp.

^{Bog landscape by Chris Moody, Jun 2009}

Buttonbush

Over the past several days, there has been a lot of activity in our backyard pollinator garden in the area surrounding the buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis. This native shrub is a multi-stemmed flowering species that can grow from 3′ to more than 12′ tall. It needs lots of sunshine and prefers moist soils. Found in many habitats including sub-tropical swamps, shrub swamps in the northeast and upper Midwest, and southern and northern floodplain forests east of the Mississippi, this species prefers swampy backwater areas, marshes, wet meadow and bogs.

^{Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, whorled leaves by loonyhiker, Oct 2010}

Newer stems are green, but quickly turn dark brown to almost black, becoming scaly with age. Leaves are opposite or whorled around the stem, each one protruding at a slightly different angle than the one above. It is thought that this arrangement provides maximum exposure of the plant’s total leaf surface to the sun.

^{Buttonbush flowers by DonArnold, Jul 2023}

^{Bumblebee on buttonbush by DonArnold, Jul 2023}

The flower clusters appear as small balls between 1/2″ and 1″ in diameter, with over 200 spikes poking outward covering their entire surface. Each spike is actually an individual flower. Flowers are closely grouped together and exude an intense, sweet fragrance. The plant reproduces through a two-stage cycle where pollen is produced and falls onto the immature pistil. As visiting insects brush through the closely grouped flowers, pollen rubs off onto their bodies. Once the pollen is gone, the pistil matures and becomes sticky at the end. As other insects arrive, pollen from other plants is picked up by the sticky end to pollinate the plant.

After pollination is complete, and the flowers drop off the plant, the ball-shaped seedhead turns completely brown. Unless it is brushed off by a passing animal or it is eaten, the seedhead may remain with the plant through the entire winter season, dropping off in spring. Seeds will often disperse into wetland areas, floating to shore. Each seed ball contains two nutlets.

^{Red Admiral butterfly on buttonbush by DonArnold, Jul 2023; Honney bee on buttonbush by DonArnold, Jul 2023; Long-tongued tiger swallowtail on buttonbush by Owen Sholes, Getty Images}

Pollinators include many long-tongued insect species especially bumblebees, honey bees, tiger swallowtail butterflies and black swallowtail butterflies. In addition, over two dozen bird species utilize the shrub for food, shelter, and nest building material – most notably are wood ducks that use the plant’s structure to shelter their young. Amphibians and reptiles hide among clusters of buttonbush in wetland areas for protection during the breeding season. Several honey-producing bee species are attracted to its pollen and nectar.

^{Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, by NC Wetlands, Aug 2018}

With more than a dozen buttonbush species worldwide, it is an easy plant find and get close to for observing its flowers and fruits, as well as the behaviors of the many animal species that frequent this shrub.

Ferns

Ferns are a group of well-known plants that first developed during the carboniferous period about 350 million years ago when the climate was stable, warm, and wet. Ferns were globally abundant in woodlands and marshlands providing suitable habitat for them.

Ferns were the first group of plants with vascular systems. Vascular plants utilize tube-like structures, called xylem tissue and phloem tissue. Water and minerals are moved from roots to fronds (leaves) through the xylem tissues and are used in photosynthesis to create food that is distributed throughout the rest of the plant in phloem tissues. Vascular systems also provide internal support so these plants can stand upright on their own.

^{Fertile fronds, Christmas fern in Sheipsit State Forest, CT by Holcy, Getty Images}

Early scientists noted that ferns came back every year, but produced no flowers or seeds. In 1669, it was discovered that spores grew on the surface of the fronds, but it was not until the mid-18th century that the entire reproductive process was understood. Spores are one-celled organisms that start to develop in springtime. They appear by the thousands as small green bumps on the undersides of fronds. As summer progresses, the sporangia, a capsule that contains the spore, turns brown. Clumps of these are called sori, and can easily be observed on fern fronds. In late summer, when the sporangia mature, they open and release their spores. Some plants will forcefully shoot their spores away from the fronds and some will open and let the spores drift away, caught by any small breeze.

^{Polystichum richardii in Stanley Park, Akaroa by Jon Sullivan, Aug 2006}

^{Lady fern sporangia by Kerry Woods, Mar 2013}

Most spores will not land in a spot with favorable growing conditions (fertile soil and water), but the spore may remain viable for up to a year, should conditions change. Spores do not contain a small plant like a seed does. A spore starts as a one-celled organism that grows by dividing itself in two during the first phase of reproduction called the gametophyte generation. As this division continues, a small structure called a prothallium grows, getting its nutrients directly from contact with water. Two more structures develop. The archegonium contains an egg, and the antheridium contains sperm. When water is present, the sperm will swim to the egg, fertilize it, and eventually a new, self-supporting plant grows.

^{Crozier shaped fronds by Ray Hems, Getty Images Signature}

The fern develops underground over the winter. In spring, when ground temperatures have risen, fernlets will push tightly coiled fiddleheads through the soil into the open air. A fiddlehead, also called a crozier, is a group of young, coiled fronds (leaves) of a fern. As the fern grows, the upper and lower surfaces of the fronds grow at different rates, and the fiddlehead uncoils, straightening out into several fronds. The plant is entering the second phase of reproduction, known as the sporophyte generation, where spores will be grown on the undersides of the fronds.

^{Green Boston fern frond, Nephrolepsis exaltata by Noppharat05081977 Getty Images}

^{Staghorn fern frond veins by IveehCoombs_Photography, Getty Images}

^{Staghorn ferns by Eyepark, Getty Images}

Ferns can also reproduce through cloning. The walking fern, Asplenium rhizophyllum, grows long fronds that eventually bend over and touch the ground. Wherever a tip touches moist soil, new roots are sent out, and a cloned plant develops. The Boston fern, Nephrolepsis exaltata, grows runners – leafless stems that branch out horizontally. Wherever they come in contact with moist soil, roots are sent out to clone another Boston fern. The staghorn fern, Platycerium sp, grows buds on its roots. As the soil around the plant is moistened by water containing nutrients, a new plant pushes upward through the soil from each bud.

^{Walking fern, Low Tatras mountains, Slovakia by Vrabelpeter1, Getty Images}

Ferns grow well in a variety of habitats. Many species prefer damp woodlands, but some grow on cliff faces or in rocky, dry locations. Be sure to watch for various species of ferns when you are out walking. A good field guide can help with fern identification and provide distinguishing information on this amazing plant group.

Frog Calling

Spring has arrived bringing rising temperatures, warm winds, and spring rains to the upper Midwest. This is the time of year when many amphibians, most notably salamanders, frogs, and toads, start their annual breeding periods. Illinois has nineteen native frog species. They are secretive and difficult to find most of the year; but spring is the season for mating, and males will leave their woodland homes and make their way to the nearest pond on nights when temperatures stay in the forties or above.

Frogs use a variety of different calls. Advertisement calls, the loudest calls voiced by male frogs, advertises their presence and availability to potential mates. The courtship call, a slight variation of the advertisement call, is used as a female gets close to direct her to the exact location where the male is waiting. If a male mounts an unreceptive female, or mounts another male, which can happen by mistake in the dark, a release call is emitted to inform the male to stop and look for another potential mate. Aggressive calls may be used by one male towards another who gets too close. And if any frogs are attacked by a predator, a loud distress call is made. This may be to startle the attacker or warn other frogs in the area.

^{Waterfall Glen gray tree frogs calling by DonArnold, 2022}

Calls are created by filling the lungs with air, and then blowing out a steady stream of air over the vocal chords. When calling, the mouth and nostrils are normally closed. The air is passed from the lungs, over the vocal chords in the larynx and into the air sac under the mouth. This air sac, shown in many frog pictures, amplifies the sound to help it carry farther. Calling requires considerable energy and may increase the metabolic rate, the rate at which calories are used, from ten to twenty times the resting rate of an individual. For frogs with breeding periods lasting many weeks, the expenditure of calories will cause a male to lose a significant amount of body weight.

^{NoName Marsh, Boreal Chorus & Spring Peeper by DonArnold, Mar 2022}

Many different species of frogs lay their eggs in the same ponds. Males arrive early in the evening and begin advertising, while females arrive a bit later and identify a potential mate based on his call. When a gravid female approaches, the male clasps her from on top and holds on. After a time, the female releases her eggs in the water, and the male immediately fertilizes them by releasing sperm into the water around the egg sac. Depending on the species, all of the eggs may be deposited in one egg sac or in several separate egg sacs. Egg laying can last several minutes to several hours. After each group of eggs is laid, the male and female may separate or rest for a brief period and then move to another spot to deposit more eggs.

Their skin is moist and cool to the touch. It is permeable, allowing air to pass directly through it into their circulatory system, helping to remove some of the workload from the lungs and heart. This can be especially useful during inclement weather. However, the skin’s permeability makes them susceptible to drying out, so they live in or close to water or high humidity environments. Their lifestyle includes being active mostly at night or on overcast days when it is cooler and more humid.

^{From left: Spring peeper calling by Andrew Hoffman, Jan 2000; Ornate chorus frog calling by FWC Fish & Wildlife, Jan 2014; Green tree frog calling by Eyeweed, Dec 2009}

Many frog populations have been impacted by losses of both wetland and forest habitat. Wetlands are used for breeding and forests provide sheltered areas with shade, ground cover, and higher humidity than areas open to bright sunlight. During spring evenings or overcast days, listen closely as you pass by these shady areas and nearby ponds to catch sound or sight of these wonderous small creatures.

Weasels

Weasels are members of the Mustelidae family, a group of carnivores that also includes badgers, otters, ferrets, martens, minks, and wolverines. All species have long necks and bodies with short legs, small, round ears, and thick fur. They are solitary animals that are active year-round, mostly at night. They use strong smelling scents from anal glands to mark their territory and signal other individuals when seeking a mate.

^{Clockwise: Black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, by J. Michael Lockhart, USFWS, Dec 2010; American mink, Neogale vison, by Patrick Reijnders; Common badger, Meles meles meles, by Prosthetic Head, Jun 2010; Wolverine, Gulo gulo, by National Park Service, 1968; Pine marten, Martes martes, by John Surrey, May 2015; Eurasian otter, Lutra lutra, by Bernard Landgraf, Jan 2005}

There are five species of weasels native to the Americas. Short-tailed weasels, also-known-as stoats, Mustela erminea and least weasels, Mustela nivalis, are found in the Arctic regions of northern Canada and Alaska. The long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenata, ranges from southern Canada through most of the continental United States to Central America and the northern areas of South America. Two other species of weasels that live in northern and central South America include the Colombian weasel, Neogale felipei, and the Amazon weasel, Neogale africana. The odd species name for the Amazon weasel was first derived from a museum skeleton that had been mislabeled as originating in Africa.

^{Short-tailed weasel, Mustela erminea, summer coat by Steve Hillebrand, USFWS, Nov 2012}

^{Short-tailed weasel, Mustela erminea, winter coat by Steven Hint, Mar 2011}

In summer, weasels are sandy-brown on their backs with light colored bellies and black-tipped tails. Species found in far northern regions molt twice each year, when their fur, except for the tail, changes to white for the winter. They have small heads with long whiskers and small, rounded ears. Necks and bodies are long and slim with short legs. Weasels are found in a variety of habitats from farmland to forested areas, but are often located along an open water source such as streams, rivers, and estuaries. The Colombian weasel has partial webbing of its feet, suggesting a semi-aquatic lifestyle. Long-tailed weasels and Amazon weasels have been observed easily swimming in larger bodies of water.

With their elongated bodies, weasels are able to easily follow prey into burrows, as well as through paths under ground cover such as leaves, snow and ice. Weasels are carnivores, hunting small mammals, birds, insects, and crustaceans. They are generally nocturnal hunters with keen senses of smell and hearing, making them capable predators. The least weasel, with a body between five and ten inches in length, has more biting power than a lion or hyena. A rabbit, its favorite prey, is five to ten times the size and weight of a weasel, but the weasel easily dispatches its prey by gripping the back of the neck to break the spine and kill it. Weasels are excellent climbers, allowing them to pursue prey off the ground.

^{Least weasel, Mustela nivalis by Keven Law, Aug 2008}

^{Least weasel, Mustela nivalis, summer in Alaska by Cecil Sanders, Aug 2008}

Weasel dens are built in burrows abandoned by other animals. A nest of grass and leaves is lined with fur from their prey. Mustelids use a reproductive strategy called embryonic diapause, found in very few mammal species. After conception, the new embryo enters a phase where it remains dormant for a period of time before implanting itself in the uterine wall to begin growth and development. The gestation period can be extended up to a year until conditions are optimal for the survival of both the offspring and the mother. In long-tailed weasels mating takes place in mid to late summer, but babies are born the following spring, when temperatures are warmer and food resources are plentiful and readily available.

Weasels mate in mid to late summer, and young are born the following spring. Kits are blind and deaf for the first two to three weeks after being born, but grow quickly and are weaned between five and six weeks. In most species, both males and females are sexually active before the end of their first summer. In one species, the short-tailed weasel, living in northern areas with short summers, females are sexually mature at two to three weeks while still blind and deaf following birth. Most are sexually mated before they are weaned. Kits will leave the nest to claim their own territory before their first winter.

^{Long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenata, in Seattle Washington by Janis Coralee Leonhardi, Jun 2021}

Most species worldwide are listed as of least concern, with strong populations. An exception is the Colombian weasel, about which very little is known. The first live one was discovered by an amateur naturalist in 2011. There are fewer than a dozen documented animals living in riparian habitats in the cloud forests of Colombia above 5,000 feet. It is thought they are doing well, but too little is known of this relatively new species. The Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or most local nature museums have wonderful displays of weasels and other members of the mustelid family for you to learn more.

Flamingos

The greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus roseus, with its long neck and legs, hooked downward bill, and bright pink plumage can be found on five of the seven continents, not including Australia or Antarctica. Only one of the six species is native to the continental U.S., the American greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber, and its native range encompasses only the far southern portions of Florida. Three additional species are found in the Caribbean and northeastern and southwestern portions of South America, plus two species are native to coastal areas of Europe, Africa , and Asia.

Flamingos are found in all types of shallow water habitats. They forage in both saltwater lakes and coastal lagoons, in addition to freshwater wetlands, ponds, and mudflats. They are able to eat prey found in very alkaline waters that most other avian species cannot tolerate. Feral birds, ones that have escaped captivity and are now breeding in the wild, from the other three species found in North and South America have formed several colonies along the southeastern coast of the U.S.

The name flamingo comes from a Spanish word meaning flame, bright and red in color. Immature birds are gray or brown. They absorb carotene, a reddish-yellow pigment, from their food, which slowly changes their plumage to light pink, deepening to darker shades including reds and oranges. It takes about three years until a bird attains the bright pink adult plumage everywhere except their flight feathers which are jet black and can be seen only when their wings are extended.

^{Greater Flamingo chick in water by JHVEPhoto, Getty Images}

Flamingos have the longest neck and legs of any native bird in the U.S. Wingspans on full-grown adults may reach five feet. Flying in a V-formation, flocks move quickly, with necks extended, taking short, strong wingbeats. Flamingos call is a strong honking, sometimes hard to distinguish from geese, to maintain the group’s cohesion in flight. Webbed feet provide stability on soft sand, mudflats, and in shallow waters along lake bottoms. Flamingos are excellent swimmers, and they use their webbed feet to stabilize their bodies in the water when reaching downward for food growing in deeper lakes and ponds.

^{Flamingo head, by XavierMarchant, Getty Images}

A flamingo’s bill is sharply angled downward in the middle. On most birds, the upper bill is part of the bones of the head, heavier and immovable. On flamingos, this is reversed and the upper bill can be used as a flap against a heavy lower bill. When feeding, the bird lowers its head, turning the bill upside down, sweeping it from side to side through the water. A central groove in the lower bill contains space for a fat tongue, used to push and pull higher volumes of water through the bill. The edges of the bill are lined with rows of horny plates called lamellae that strain out crustaceans, mollusks, and small insects. Flamingos are typically night feeders, resting during the day.

Flamingos roost in single species colonies. They will only breed if they are part of a large group, and breeding occurs for all at the same time. Nest mounds are volcano-shaped, arranged close by one another on a mudflat. Each breeding pair of birds lays only one egg on top of its mound. Parents take turns incubating the egg while the other is foraging. Chicks stay with the parents for four to six weeks after hatching, until they are able to feed themselves. Still unable to forage and in need of protection, all of the chicks in larger colonies may form one group called a creche. The group can be guarded by only a few adults, giving the rest of the colony the opportunity to forage for themselves and bring back food for the creche.

^{Nesting Rose Flamingo with egg in nest, by Artush, Getty Images}

^{Chick and mother, by tane-mahuta, Getty Images}

Toward the end of the 1800s, feather collecting for the millinery markets adversely impacted many bird populations. However, this did not include flamingos because their feathers quickly lose the pink color once they are removed from the bird. Today, flamingo populations around the world are shrinking due to habitat loss. Much of their native habitat is wetland coastal areas being developed. In addition, flamingos do not have the capacity to switch diets, and as more wetlands are drained or polluted, food sources are continually disappearing.

Look for these magnificent birds at your local zoo, or consider a trip to see them in many of the nature areas in southern Florida.

Duck Potato Salad

Walking around a freshwater marsh, we can observe dozens of plants and animals. Daily sunlight provides hours of energy, but it is only usable by the plants, which create their own food in a process called photosynthesis. Plants may be fully submerged, floating, or living above the water’s surface, but all are vital components of the food supply.

^{Marsh panorama by Beyond_Invisible, Getty Images}

Just as animals breathe, plants also need to exchange gases, taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. Plants living in a marsh, where they are fully or partially saturated with water, have developed several strategies for the gas exchange process. Spongy tissue is a universal adaptation of marsh plants. Both stems and leaves contain large airspaces surrounding food producing cells which are well distributed throughout the plant. Airspaces also keep the plants lightweight and enable stems, leaves and flowers to float on or reach above the water’s surface.

Floating wisps of green algae are primitive plants that have been on earth for over two billion years and are the basic food source for all life in the marsh. Millions of microscopic animals, crustaceans, insects, and small fish depend directly on green algae for their food. Green algae lack stems, leaves and flowers, but grow as long chains of nearly identical cells. Some algae are microscopic, some can be easily observed as green strands on or below the water’s surface and some grow to several hundred feet in length.

^{Duckweed forest pond by Sunsju, Aug 2019}

Duckweeds refer to a group of tiny, flowering plants that float on the surface of wetland areas. They reproduce by dividing their cells. This is a rapid process taking from 16 to 48 hours. In optimal growing conditions, with plenty of sunlight and nutrients available, the surface area of a pond can be covered in a very short period of time. Several species of pond plants grow long, narrow leaves with soft, nourishing cells providing a easy-to-eat and tasty treat for marsh dwellers. With large airspaces, these plants are able to stay afloat no matter how long they grow.

^{Spatterdock by Kirill Ignatyev, Jul 2011}

Plants with floating leaves, such as spatterdock, must have a method for preventing excess water from entering leaves and stems when they exchange gases. Plants have stomata, openings in the leaf where gases are exchanged. In terrestrial plants, stomata are located on the undersides of leaves to prevent rain from entering the opening. Floating leaves have stomata on the upper side of the leaf, providing far less exposure to water.

^{Water marigold by Gennady Alexandrov, May 2014}

Water marigold has two types of leaves, one that grows on the stem above the water’s surface and another that grows on the submerged stems. Leaves growing in air take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen through their stomata. Submerged leaves have very thin cell walls and exchange the same gases directly with the water surrounding them.

^{Arrowhead with bulb, -duck potato’, lower right, by Andriy Nekrasov, Getty Images}

Arrowhead is firmly anchored in the bottom of ponds, and has stems, leaves, and flowers growing above the surface. It reproduces by both seeds grown from pollinated flowers and bulbs grown on submerged stems. Bulbs remain submerged, attached to the stem and grow until they are mature enough to anchor themselves in the bottom silt and start another plant. While growing, the bulbs are very tasty and are a favorite food of many duck species, earning the nickname duck potatoes.

^{Wild celery, Vallisneria americana, by Schizoform, Jun 2022}

Wild celery produces both male and female flowers. Female flowers are attached to long stems that float on the water’s surface. Male flowers break off underwater and float to the surface unattached, where they are blown around until they meet a female flower, transferring pollen by contact. The pollinated flower coils downward back under the surface where the seeds develop and are released into the water to start a new plant wherever they land on the silt bottom.

Marsh plants come in many forms and each is well adapted to the unique conditions of the habitat in which they live.

Boreal Forest in Winter

The boreal forest is the largest tract of woodland on earth covering 11% of all land area, half again as large as the Amazon rainforest. It stores 30% of the sequestered carbon on earth. The area also contains a mosaic of wet meadows, ponds, lakes, marshes, and bogs interlaced among the trees. Tree species include many conifers, dominated by spruce, plus aspen, birch, willow and alder. The animal life is abundant, with every species that was there before European settlement still remaining.

^{Boreal Forest panorama by Mliberra, getty Images}

The boreal forest is distinguished by short, hot, wet summers and long, dry, cold winters. When the last glaciers retreated northward, many holes and fissures were left behind. As the ice melted, all of these depressions were filled with water. The underlying geology is mostly granite shield, a rock layer that holds the water in and contains few minerals that dissolve in water, yielding very clear water that does not promote algae or bacteria growth. Most lake life is found in the shallow, warmer edges which also provide support to nearly all of the land-based fauna.

^{From upper left clockwise: Alder tree by Mantonature, Getty Images Signature; Spruce trees by Hannu Koskela, Getty Images; Willow tree by smarko , Pixabay; Aspen trees by Adamisovitsch, Getty Images}

Winter time presents many challenges including less sunlight, colder temperatures, less available water, less food and shelter, and increased severe storms. Animals that are active daily have higher energy requirements in winter. They must often change their dietary sources to whatever is available in winter. Grey squirrels and beavers cache food during warmer periods. Birds eat foods higher in calories such as nuts, seeds, dried fruit, and insects found under tree bark. When changes are consistent from year to year, species develop adaptations to meet the requirements of each season and are able to live comfortably throughout the year.

Shelter becomes not only a place to hide from predators, but also provides protection from weather extremes. Snow of different thicknesses and weight covers the landscape. Snow is also a great insulator, keeping cold winds away from exposed skin. There is normally a layer of air between the ground and the snow cover immediately above. Temperatures in this space are warmer than the exposed air above the snow creating a winter habitat that is vitally important for many species. Mice and voles create burrows under the snow where they can huddle together for added warmth. Similarly, air pockets surrounded by a heavy growth of conifer needles create spaces above the snow cover for birds and some larger mammals to shelter. And many larger species will nestle into the snow pack to shelter from storms and wind.

^{Spruce grouse by Impr2003, Getty Images}

^{Willow ptarmigan by Alex Berger, Mar 2022}

Spruce grouse, Canachites canadensis, and willow ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus, are not able to fly more than several yards. They grow feathers on their feet to insulate them and aid in traction. Grouse use the air layer at ground level to shelter in.

^{Portrait of a snowshoe hare by Jim Cumming, Getty Images}

^{Canada lynx by Carol Gray, Getty Images}

Ptarmigan, along with snowshoe hares, Lepus americanus, and short-tailed weasels, Mustela erminea, all change color to pure white to hide from predators. Snowshoe hare and Canada lynx, Lynx canadensis, have very large feet that aid in walking on snow without sinking in. Arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus, are winter specialists with compact bodies and short legs and ears that limit their exposure to cold, and large, furry paws that enable them to walk on top of the snowpack. With their long, bushy tails wrapped around their heads, they can withstand winds and temperatures to fifty below zero.

^{Stayin’ warm, Arctic fox by PEDRE, Getty Images Signature}

You can learn more about this cold but wondrous habitat by searching online for boreal forest, referring to the southern portions of the habitat, or taiga, referring to the northern portions. Also, look for information concerning seasonal adaptations for species in your own area, or visit a local natural history museum such as the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum in Lisle, Illinois.