Mammals – Rodents – Discover-Nature

The High Life, animal species

In the last blog, we investigated the conditions and constraints of living at high altitudes, generally above 10,000 feet. A few physiological adaptations listed included enhanced breathing and blood supply to get more oxygen to the body, internal temperature regulation allowing some mammals to adjust to a colder environment, and smaller plants requiring less moisture and having a short growing season.

^{Common springtail, Orchesella cincta, by Mvuijlst, Feb 2009}

^{Springtail, Isotoma caerulea, by Andy Murray, Jul 2014}

The Himalayan jumping spider, Euophrys omnisuperstes, is generally found above 22,000 feet, living among rock crevices and feeding on stray insects blown upward by rising mountain winds. The spider also feeds on springtails, Collembola, once considered an insect but now classified as a free-ranging hexapod. These tiny organisms have antifreeze compounds in their blood, enabling them to live in higher, colder habitats.

Reptiles from four lizard species have been found living in higher elevations. Two species of iguana in the genus Liolaemus live in Bolivia; a third iguana species, Liolaemus tacnae, lives in Peru; and an Asian lizard, Phrynocephalus erythrurus, lives on the Tibetan plateau. All were found between 16,000 feet and 18,000 feet, but very little is known about them since these areas are difficult to access for study.

^{Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, by Giles Laurent, Dec 2021; Andean condor, Vultur gryphus, by Bastihitzi, May 2013; Alpine chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus, by Jim Higham, 2008}

Birds can be found living near mountain tops year-round. The Alpine chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus, lives in social flocks from the Alps to the Himalayas. Standing 15″ high with a 30″ wingspan, they have black feathers with distinct yellow beaks and red legs. They eat insects and berries in summer, but have become well-adapted to scavenging in winter, especially around ski resorts. The Andean condor, Vultur gryphus, another social bird, roosts on cliffs and outcrops above 16,000 feet. The steep terrain provides additional protection from potential predators. Golden eagles, Aquila chrysaetos, are found world-wide in many habitats. In the mountains, they hunt marmot, hare, and young goats at lower elevations, but nest in eyries, large cliff-hugging nests at higher elevations. With wingspans up to seven feet, they can dive at speeds of up to 150mph over unsuspecting prey.

^{Left top to bottom: Common crane, Grus grus, by Savithri Singh, Feb 2020; Whooper swan,Cygnus cygnus, by KyoichiNarukami, Japan, Jan 2012; Bar-headed goose, Anser indicus, by J.M.Garg, India, Mar 2000; Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture, Gyps rueppellii, by Lip Kee, Kenya, Aug 2008}

High altitude bird species with physiological adaptations for breathing and blood supply include those whose migration routes take them over the world’s highest mountain ranges. Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture, Gyps rueppellii, with an 8-foot wingspan, has been observed at altitudes exceeding 36,000 feet over the Ethiopian Highlands of Central Africa. The common crane, Grus grus, lives across eastern Europe and northern Asia, migrating over the Alps to Africa, India and southern China. The bar-headed goose, Anser indicus, and the whooper swan, Cygnus cygnus, both live in south Asia and migrate over the Alps to central and sub-Arctic Asia to breed.

^{Above: Large-eared pika, Ochotona macrotis,}
^{by Karunakar Rayker, Ladakh India, Feb 2008}

^{Right: Snow leopard, Panthera uncia, by Vassil, Aug 2007}

The heights of the Himalayas support mammals that can concentrate their hemoglobin and allow the blood to carry more oxygen, avoiding issues with hypoxia, a shortage of usable oxygen in the body. Species with this physiological adaptation include large-eared pika, Ochotona macrotis, living above 7,700 feet up to 20,000 feet; wild yak, Bos mutus, which have larger heart and lungs than domesticated yaks; and the snow leopard, Panthera uncia, living above 3,000 feet up to 18,000 feet. The snow leopard has short, heavily furred limbs and a long, heavy tail for use as a blanket. Its large nasal cavity and strong chest allows more oxygen to be taken in with each breath.

^{Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, by Charles J. Sharp, Ethiopia, Dec 2017; Mountain goat, Oreamnos americanus, by Darklich14, Colorado, Aug 2009; Tibetan argali, Ovis ammon, by DonArnold, Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, Mar 2026; Guanaco, Lama guanicoe, by Charles J. Sharp, Chile, Oct 2025; Yellow-rumped leaf-eared mouse, Phyllotis xanthopygus, drawing by Charles Darwin, 1832}

Mountain goats, Oreamnos americanus, can climb steep cliff faces with hooves that grip ledges and rock surfaces in the Rocky Mountains. The yellow-rumped leaf-eared mouse, Phyllotis xanthopygus, feeds on grains, seeds, roots, and insects in the Andean Mountains of Chile, living at altitudes to 22,000 feet. Guanaco, Lama guanicoe, a member of the camel family, lives in the Andes up to 13,000 feet and has about four times as many red blood cells as a human does. The Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, is an endangered species living up to 15,000 feet in central Africa with populations fragmented by pressure from human farming activities. Tibetan argali, Ovis ammon, is a wild sheep found in the Altai Mountains of Mongolia up to 19,000 feet. The ewes and lambs prefer steep, treacherous slopes as protection against predators.

Scientists continue to study species in these habitats to learn more about their specific adaptations and survival abilities in a harsh environment. You can learn more by visiting zoos or nature museums near you to investigate these fascinating species.

Squirrels of Illinois

Squirrels are members of the family Rodentia, along with about 40% of all mammals species including mice, rats, voles, beavers, muskrats, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Rodents are characterized by the two front teeth on both the upper and lower jaws that grow continuously their entire lives.

^{Note incisors on left strike against each other to remain sharp; Molars grow in back of mouth}

^{Rodent dental system by V. Leche, professor Stockholm hogskola}

^{Guinea pig incisors by Morbakka, Oct 2024}

Squirrels in Illinois can be found in forested areas as well as urban communities. They all use their long tails for balance when climbing trees or resting on branches as well as running along branches, wires, and tops of walls. Squirrels are excellent climbers and can jump up to ten feet. They are able to gnaw and chew through almost any non-metal material.

^{Grey squirrel jumping to a fence top by AJ, Nov 2017}

Most species are solitary dwellers, but not territorial, able to live on their own, but in close association with other squirrels, rarely fighting for territory, food, or mates. They breed twice each year, once in winter and once in early summer. Two to four young are typically born and can fend for themselves after about two months. The young will often stay with the mother until the next litter is born.

Squirrels use tree cavities for raising young and for protection from predators, but most of the time they live in nests built of twigs and leaves high up in a tree. Nests are normally located near readily available water. They eat a variety of foods including nuts, berries, acorns, fruit, buds, fungi, seeds, and insects.

^{Fox squirrel by Corey Seeman, Jan 2023}

^{Fox squirrel by Corey Seeman, Jan 2020}

The fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, is the largest species in Illinois at about 22″ in length and weighing up to two pounds. Their fur is reddish-brown, with lighter shades on ears, bellies, and tail edges. They are common in urban areas, but are often found where there are no gray squirrels. Fox squirrels are most active in the early morning and late evening and are excellent swimmers.

^{Grey squirrel by Zoblinski,}
^{Getty Images}

^{Leucistic (white) grey squirrel}
^{by Pete Weiler, Pexels}

^{Melinistic (black) grey squirrel}
^{by Tom GV, Getty Images}

The Eastern gray squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis, is slightly smaller at about 18″ long and weighs about a pound. They have short, gray fur, but are often subject to genetic variations that result in different colored fur. Common variants in Illinois include melanistic or black squirrels, leucistic or white squirrels, and albino squirrels. Eastern gray squirrels are abundant in urban areas and large forested tracks. However, there are very few forests left in Illinois to support these animals.

^{Red squirrel by Christopher Defalco, Pexels}

Red squirrels, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, are small, about a foot long, weighing about a half pound. They have reddish-brown backs with white bellies and a dark orange stripe down their back in summertime. Red squirrels are found only in the northeast quarter of the state in large forested areas. They are diurnal, active in early morning and late evening.

^{Southern flying squirrel by EEI_Tony, Getty Images}

The Southern flying squirrel, Glaucomys volans, is the smallest species at about nine inches, weighing only two ounces. They have gray-red-brown backs with white bellies and are nocturnal, making them difficult to observe. Flying squirrels have large eyes to see better at night and a long, flattened tail that is used as a rudder when airborne. A flap of skin runs between the front and back legs on either side of their body and is stretched taut when their legs are spread, providing the ability to jump from a high place and glide down to a lower place. Unlike other squirrel species, flying squirrels share a communal nest during most of the year.

^{Northern flying squirrel by Dopeyden, Getty Images______While this is not the species found in Illinois, flight patterns are very similar…}

Squirrels play an important part in forest and urban tree regeneration. They bury acorns and other nuts in warmer months for winter food stores, but usually bury many more than they actually consume. The remainder are left to germinate, resulting in many new trees each year. Squirrels are fun to observe and can provide enjoyment and an opportunity to learn about wildlife behaviors. Come down to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you to learn more about these amazing animals.

Greene Valley Trail

As the heat abated a little bit, we decided to take a hike at the DuPage County Greene Valley Forest Preserve in Naperville, Illinois, this past weekend. On the east side, in the central part of the preserve, a 2.25 mile trail loops from the south parking lot to the Southern DuPage County Regional Trail and the Valley Trail. Trails are well-marked, wide limestone paths, with plenty of room for walkers and bicycles.

We found a pleasant, open vista that was great for birdwatchers and prairie enthusiasts alike. The Valley Trail runs alongside the east branch of the DuPage River, which makes it attractive to bird species, although there is no view of the river for hikers. While it was an overcast day making bird identification difficult, we were able to observe those seen below:

^{Birds pictured above in clockwise order: Northern cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis, by Mshake, Getty Images; Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, by Robert Jakubowski, Pexels; Song sparrow, Melospiza melodia, by BrianEKushner, Getty Images; Common yellowthroat, Geothlypis trichas, by BrianEKushner, Getty Images; Field sparrow, Spizella pusilla, by Mr Jamsey, Getty Images Signature; Gray catbird, Dumetella carolinensis, by SKHoward, Getty Images Signature}

Vegetation varies greatly, providing good protection for many of the small mammals plus lots of perches for birds. Many plant varieties could be seen and identified without leaving the trails, including those pictured below.

Black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis; Edible in season
Climbing prairie rose, Rosa setigera; Pollinator species for bees
Common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca; Pollinator species supporting more than 450 species of insects
Cup plant, Silphium perfoliatum; Leaf wraps around the stem forming a water holding cup
Eastern Black Walnut, Juglans nigra; It is allelopathic, releasing chemicals from its roots that may give the tree some advantage over its nearest competitors for food and nutrients
Elderberry, Sambucus sp.; Sambucus is Greek for an ancient wind instrument sounding as a whistle
Grey headed coneflower, Ratibida pinnata; Perennial attractive to Butterflies & birds
Hemp dogbane, Apocynum cannabinum; All parts of the plant are toxic, possibly fatal
Joe Pye weed, Eutrochium sp; Considered medicinal by early American cultures
Northern red oak, Quercus rubra; Acorns need a minimum 3-month exposure to near freezing temperatures to germinate
Sumac, Rhus sp.; Prized as a spice from the cashew & mango tree families
Virginia creeper, Parthenocissus quinquefolia; Flowering vine in the grape family
Grey poplar, Populus x canescens; Cross between white poplar and Aspen
Wild bergamot, Monarda fistulosa; Considered medicinal in use as a tea for colds

^{Scroll through pictures above using the left & right arrows}

The area supported plenty of small mammals such as rabbit, shrew, deer, coyote, and both gray and fox squirrels. We saw lots of pollinators including bees, moths, butterflies, and dragonflies. Greene Valley Forest Preserve offers a wide range of hiking trails, a scenic overlook, camping and picnicking facilities, a model airplane field, and many events, including night sky observations throughout the year. Consider catching some of the amazing sights in natural areas near you.

^{Fauna pictured above in clockwise order: Coyote, Canis latrans, by Esteban Arango, pexels; Galls on grape leaves; White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, by Stefonlinton, Getty Images Signature; White cabbage butterfly, Pieris rapae, by Bejan Adrian, Pexels; Shrew by CreativeNature_nl, Getty Images; Eastern cottontail, Sylvilagus floridanus, by Brian Forsyth, Pexels}

Rodents

Rodentia are the largest order of mammals in the world, encompassing over 40% of mammal species. A rodent is characterized by having two pairs of large front teeth, one pair in each of the upper and lower jaws. These are called incisors and are used for gnawing vegetation. They have no canine teeth, leaving a large gap between the four front teeth and their molars in the back of the mouth. Rodents can be found in all types of habitat everywhere in the world except Antarctica, New Zealand and a few oceanic islands.

Capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, use calls to warn others of danger and to find their young including purring, barking, cackling, whistling, whining, grunting, and chattering.

^{Capybara by Dick Culbert, Gibsons, B.C. Canada, May 2014}

The largest rodent is the capybara, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, growing up to 140 pounds. But a majority of species are small animals, under 4 ounces, with bulky bodies, short limbs, and long tails. Compared to their overall size, the body’s surface area is large and contributes to a greater loss of heat than larger animals. To combat this, rodents create more body heat by being constantly active. They consume large quantities of food to meet high energy needs. Many species are active year-round, coming out during early morning and late evening hours to feed. Animals living in habitats with extreme temperatures may hibernate to escape the cold or estivate to escape the heat. These species conserve energy by adjusting their body temperatures to within a few degrees of the air temperature and slow other bodily functions, requiring less food and more rest.

North American beaver, Castor canadensis, hone their upper teeth into efficient biting tools and defensive weaponry.

North American beaver, *Castor canadensis,* by Steve, Washington D.C., Jul 2008

Incisors grow constantly their entire lives. The front surface is protected by a hard enamel shell. The back surface of the upper pair is soft and easily wears away from the constant rubbing of the lower teeth as vegetation is bitten off and chewed. This creates a chisel like edge on the top teeth that is an excellent cutting surface. Teeth are used to gnaw vegetation, dig burrows, and for defense, if attacked. If an animal does not gnaw enough vegetation, the growth rate of the teeth becomes greater than what is being worn away and health problems can develop leading to the inability to eat. This most often occurs in captive animals who are not provided with sufficient quantities of harder vegetation.

Fox squirrels, Sciurus niger, scamper up tree trunks, along branches, and are able to leap to nearby trees, in addition to being fast on the ground and good swimmers.

^{Fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, by Karly Tuminello, Jul 2020}

Food is mainly seeds, leaves, fruit and small invertebrates or insects. A internal structure called a caecum contains bacteria that assists in breaking down plant material into digestible form. Several rodents have eyes that protrude in a half dome from their head allowing them to see both ahead and behind. This wide field of vision allows the animal to easily detect predators. Their daytime eyesight is poor, but they can detect ultra-violet light, allowing excellent vision during twilight hours when they are most often active. Most rodents live in large social groups, but forage individually, using a wide variety of alarm calls to keep others informed when danger is near.

Naked mole-rats, Heterocephalus glaber, have strong jaws that use one-quarter of all the muscle tissue in their body.

^{Naked mole-rats, Heterocephalus glaber, by Roman Klementschitz, Wien, Dec 2003}

Humans often consider rodent species to be harmful pests. While they may carry bacteria and cause nuisance problems, they are also beneficial by eating weed seeds and insects, keeping populations of many pest species in check. Rodents are widely used in human culture as food, clothing, pets, and laboratory animals for research. Visit a museum or nature center to learn about the many fun facts of each family in this amazing group of animals.

Kangaroo rats, Dipodomys sp, hop to move around but can jump 6 to 9 feet, and they get all their water from the seeds they eat.

^{Kangaroo rat, Dipodomys, by U.S. Fish & Wildlife, Sep 2005}

Chipmunks

The eastern chipmunk, Tamias striatus, one of Illinois’ smaller mammals, is quite active in our area from late spring until mid-autumn. Chipmunks are abundant throughout Illinois, and they are one of four species of ground squirrels that also includes the thirteen-lined ground squirrel, the Franklin’s ground squirrel and the woodchuck. Chipmunks are the smallest of the four, weighing from two to five ounces and growing eight to twelve inches in length. They have alternating dark and light stripes on their backs, sides, and cheeks; light bellies; small, erect ears; and furry, flattened tails.

Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor

A chipmunk’s eyes are located on the sides of its head and provide excellent ninety-degree views from directly in front of their face around to both left and right sides. They can easily detect any nearby motion and moving shadows cast by birds or any other overhead object. Chipmunks have a poor sense of smell, but an excellent sense of hearing. They climb trees to escape predators and to search for food. Their fur is reddish-brown on top and a buff colored below, making them hard to see from overhead or underneath when they are up in the trees.

Eastern chipmunk burrow by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor

After finding a mate, chipmunks construct an underground nest of extensive tunnels and chambers using their noses and clawed feet. A work tunnel is started by digging a well-hidden entrance hole followed by a wider tunnel leading to a large, centrally located nest chamber lined with leaves. Several smaller chambers are dug for food storage. A second exit hole is handy for emergencies, and several tunnels extend downwards to draw water away from the main tunnel system. Nests are often re-used each winter, adding many tunnels and chambers through annual remodeling.

Mated chipmunks will enter their nest in mid-November and stay together underground until late March. Chipmunks do not accumulate bodily fat reserves and do not hibernate. They can reduce their metabolic rate by 85% during sleep periods lasting from three to seven days. Awake for one to two days between sleep periods, they restore energy by eating from cached food supplies. Mating occurs in early spring followed by a 31-day gestation period. Two to eight hairless and completely dependent young are born in late April. The male chipmunk may leave the nest in spring, leaving the female to handle all rearing of the young, which are weaned at about six weeks.

Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus by J.P.Myers

Chipmunks have cheek pouches used for gathering food. These extend from the mouth down either side of the neck and are expandable, carrying up to two tablespoons of seeds and grass. Food may include seeds, nuts, fungi, bulbs, moles, grasshoppers, small frogs, salamanders, and bird eggs. Cheek pouches reduce the number of excursions outside the nest needed to fill food caches. However, they usually do not carry a maximum load because they still need to fit their head through their tunnel opening of about two inches in diameter. They find water in fallen leaves or small pools and will drink as much as 25% of their weight daily.

Chipmunks are common visitors to woodlands and backyards where food is easily found. When danger is nearby, they immediately freeze all movement and can hold their position for several minutes. When the tail is held upright, this is a signal of danger nearby. When establishing or defending territory, they will stomp their feet and swish their tails. Chipmunks take frequent dust baths to remove mites, fleas and other bugs from their fur. Active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon, they are fun to observe, especially when exhibiting their unique behaviors.

Squirrels

Excuse me! Your bird feeder is empty! That’s what the squirrels in my backyard tell me every other day. I have several feeders, some year round, and more in the winter months. Squirrels are alert, always wary of their surroundings, yet show very little fear of humans They are presumptuous, eager, intelligent, and fun to observe. Unique adaptations allow some to scurry up and down tree trunks, and others to fly.

Eastern Grey Squirrels, Sciurus carolinensis, seem to be everywhere, running up and down tree trunks, scampering across limbs, leaping from tree to tree, and planning new ways to get into the neighborhood bird feeders. They are active year-round and are diurnal, active early in the morning and late in the afternoon, often resting during the middle of the day, but, even while resting, they must be constantly alert for predators. Squirrels are shades of black and brown fur tipped with gray above with white bellies. When looking up into the trees, the lighter colored underside blends with the sky making it harder to see. For a predator flying overhead, the darker shades of the squirrel’s back blends in with the leaves, twigs and ground colors. At this time of year, activity increases as squirrels cut, drop and bury nuts for the winter. Each nut is buried separately under one to two inches of soil. Squirrels do not have to remember where they buried their food because of their excellent sense of smell. They can detect a buried nut from up to a foot away even through layers of soil. Grey squirrels will find and eat about 85% of their cached food each season.

Eastern Fox Squirrel, *Sciurus niger*, by DonArnold

The Eastern Fox Squirrel, Sciurus niger, is the largest squirrel in northern Illinois. It is similar in coloration to the Grey Squirrel, but with yellow undersides and no silver tipped hairs on its back. Although not considered a social species, several individuals may den together in the winter to maintain warmth. Fox Squirrels prefer winter dens in holes in trees, often using abandoned woodpecker holes. If there are no holes available, they will build a leaf nest with a side entrance hole and line it with grass, leaves, and moss. They also cache nuts for the winter, using tree cavities whenever possible. Fox Squirrels may have four to six active dens at any time, switching between them.

Red Squirrel, *Tamiasciurus hudsonicus*, by Robert Taylor, C-2012

The Red Squirrel, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, sometimes known as Pine Squirrel or Chickaree, is our smallest squirrel, not often seen in DuPage County, which is on the southern edge of its range. Red Squirrels have rust-red to grey coats, brightest on their sides with white bellies. In winter, a black line separates the red from white on the body and carries through the tail with the black band edged in white. They are the most carnivorous of the species inhabiting this area bird eggs and young birds in addition to nuts, berries, and seeds. They cache pine cones for the winter. Red Squirrels also feed on sugar maple and red maple trees, chewing into the xylem under the bark to start a slow flow of sap. As the mixture of glucose and water oozes out, the squirrel will leave the patch to dry. As it leaves the tree, wet sap is about 2% sugar. As the water evaporates, the remaining mixture becomes almost 55% sugar, a high energy food.

Southern Flying Squirrel, *Glaucomys volans*, by Judy Frederick, C-2012

The last of our acrobats, the Southern Flying Squirrel, Glaucomys volans, has a silky coat, brown on the back and white on the belly, with an extra fold of skin between the forelegs and the hindlegs. This skin allows Flying Squirrels to glide from a high trunk to a lower one, traveling up to 80 yards in one leap. Their wide, flat tails are used as rudders to turn or change the angle of descent in mid-air. The tail also acts as an air brake, dropping to slow their descent as the forelegs are raised and the squirrel makes a soft landing. Although active only at night, they immediately move to the other side of the trunk on landing in case there are any predators – owls – following their flight through the trees. Flying Squirrels are agile climbers and gliders, but are clumsy on the ground, so they spend a majority of their time among the trees. They prefer to live in large, mature forested areas where trees are spaced far enough apart to allow gliding without obstacles. Preferred foods include nuts, berries, seeds and bird eggs. These ravenous squirrels may store as many as 15,000 nuts in one season.

Eastern Gray Squirrel heading down, by DonArnold

All squirrels move easily through the trees. They have sharp claws for climbing and hanging onto vertical tree trunks. Muscular legs allow them to jump between branches and from tree to tree. In winter, feet and toes are covered with hair for extra grip on slippery surfaces. Squirrels can go down a tree trunk head first, just as fast as they can go up, due to a unique adaptation that allows these animals to turn their paws 180˚ and provide just as much grip in either direction. When observing squirrels, note their tail movements. Tails are used for balance and communication, flicking movement indicates agitation from danger close by, and the faster the flick, the more dangerous the situation. Squirrels also use calls to communicate. A rapid kuk-kuk-kuk indicates immediate danger. As the danger passes, the call will slow down. Once the danger is gone, calls will stop and tails will be laid comfortably along backs.

Oak-hickory forests cover one fourth of all the forested areas east of the Mississippi River in the United States. Winds carry some seeds long distances, others encased in tasty fruits, will be eaten and dropped far from the plant they grew on. Acorns and nuts are relatively heavy, falling to the ground immediately underneath the parent trees. Squirrels and oaks have a wonderful relationship, where one gets food and shelter, and the other gets its offspring spread across the forest.

As forested areas are overtaken by human development, they are cut up into smaller and smaller islands of habitat. Many squirrels are well adapted to live in urban environments among humans and our dwellings. They can easily switch to different food groups including berries, seeds, fruit, mushrooms and nuts. All of these are plentiful in our gardens and bird feeders. An urban environment can support up to 20 squirrels per acre compared to a forested acre that supports only one to two individuals due to competition for food. Squirrels provide many ecological services from reforestation to providing a source of food for predators, as well as endless entertainment for us!