forest – Discover-Nature

Red Panda

The red panda, Ailurus fulgens, a small mammal closely related to weasels and raccoons, is found in the Himalayan and Tibetan mountain ranges of Nepal, Bhutan, and southern China. There are two subspecies, the Himalayan red panda and the Chinese red panda, differentiated by slight skull and color variations. They were isolated almost 200,000 years ago by glaciation in the Brahmaputra River Valley.

Red pandas live in steeply sloped, heavily forested areas where bamboo grows in dense thickets and there is easy access to water. Their habitat ranges in altitude from 6,500 feet to over 14,000 feet, in a temperate area with average temperatures in the upper sixties (Fahrenheit). These mountain ranges contain many protected pockets of forest, interconnected with wildlife corridors through unprotected country. Some areas overlap habitat where the Giant Panda lives, and the two species must share the bamboo in these locations.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, by Pixabay 27707, Sep 2015}

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, climbing at Taronga Zoo, by Charles Wong}

The red panda has a round head with a short snout and white fringed, triangular ears. Adults are 24″ long and weigh about 15 pounds. Their fur is dense, reddish-brown and covered with dark guard hairs. A black belly and legs, with a white muzzle and alternating red and buff rings along an 18″ tail, ensures that the red panda is well camouflaged in a forested area covered in red moss and white lichen. They have five curved claws on each foot that can be partially retracted in addition to flexible joints in their pelvis and hind limbs and an elongated wrist bone ending in a false thumb. All of these adaptations allow for a great range of motion when climbing and moving about the forest.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, mom and newborn by Rainer Halama, Jul 2013}

Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, twittering

The red panda lives in solitude, except during mating season in late winter when they cautiously seek out mates, resting and feeding near one another for short periods. Mating occurs on the ground, and gestation lasts 13 weeks, but can be prolonged up to 24 weeks at the discretion of the mother. The female selects a den site, building a nest of sticks, leaves, grass, and moss. Litters are between 1 and 4 babies weighing only 3 to 4 ounces at birth. Babies are born covered in fur for warmth, but blind for their first 18 days. They depend on their mother for everything for three to five months, and will not leave home until a year has passed.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, sunbathing by Su-May, Sep 2011}

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, Conservation of energy by Tina R Tiller}

Red pandas move easily through the trees as well as over open ground. Trees next to bamboo stands provide places to sit higher up and eat, but the forest also provides shelter, an escape route from potential predators, and branches to sunbathe on in colder weather. If temperatures become too bitter, red pandas can lower their metabolic rates, curl into a tight ball, and sleep for a few hours to conserve warmth and energy. Bamboo makes up a large part of their diet, but it is supplemented with fruits, flowers, eggs, small mammals and birds. They prefer to eat early in the morning and late in the afternoon, while intermittently sleeping during the remaining hours.

_{Chinese red panda, Ailurus fulgens, named Kinta at Nogeyama Zoo, by Toshihiro Gamo}

Red pandas are on the endangered species list with decreasing populations near 10,000 in the wild. Their primary predators include leopards and jackals, which they can escape from using their climbing skills and agility through rocky and forested areas. But their main threat comes from poachers who prize their fur and bushy tails for the hat making industry and habitat destruction and land development that is steadily cutting large forests into small, isolated acreages. Red pandas have been well studied and are a favorite species at many zoos. Consider getting out this year to see them and learn more at a zoo near you.

American Asters

As we enter early autumn, it is late in the growing season for the central United States, and many insect species are still actively looking for pollen and nectar as they get ready for winter. Migrating birds and species that overwinter here are also seeking daily meals. Fall flowering plant species are much fewer in number than summer blooming species, but include varieties of American asters, Symphyotrichum spp.; goldenrod, Solidago spp.; black-eyed Susans, Rudbeckia spp.; coneflower, Echinacea spp.; sedum, Sedum spp.; and anise hyssop, Agastache spp.

^{American Aster by Andrew McKinlay, Aug 2013; Anise hyssop by Steve Guttman, Oct 2011; Black-eyed Susan by Jodi Grundig, Aug 2009; Coneflower by Bonnie Leer, Jul 2008; Goldenrod by Cathy Baird, Aug 2013; Sedum by Eleanor Martin, Jul 2009}

In this blog, we take a look at American asters, which make up a genus of over 100 species of perennial plants, all of which are native to North America. Asters like full or partial sun and reach heights of between one and six feet. They display a variety of colors from white to blue to purple. They do best in wet soils. Asters are often grown in pots or used in borders, as well as being found in a variety of wild habitats including forests, savannas, prairies, and wetlands.

^{American painted lady on Pacific aster by TJ Gehling, Oct 2023; Gulf fritillary on white aster by Vicki DeLoach, Ot 2012; Leaf cutter bee, Megachile spp, on New England aster, by GreenRavenPhotography, Sep 2016; Metallic green bee on white aster by Jacqui Trump, Oct 2021; Pecks skipper, Polites peckius, on smooth blue aster, Symphyotrichum laeve, by Tom Potterfield, Sep 2016}

These asters are an excellent source of nectar and pollen sought by both long-tongued and short-tongued bees, butterflies, wasps, and beetles. All parts of the plant are edible, although some species may contain mild toxins, making the animal eating it ill. Leaves and stems are eaten by grouse, turkey, chipmunks, mice, and deer. The abundant seeds are available long after most other flower seeds have been consumed or buried. Large quantities of seeds are eaten by migrating bird species including dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis; indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea; American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea; and American goldfinch, Spinus tristis.

^{American goldfinch, Spinus tristis, by F Delventhal, Jul 2022; American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea, by Tom Benson, Nov 2018; Dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis, by Stan Lupo, Mat 2020; Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea, by Mitchell McConnell, Apr 2013}

Asters are sometimes referred to as a keystone species. Keystone species can be either plants or animals that are essential to maintaining the health and functions of the entire ecosystem to which they belong. The introduction or loss of a keystone species may significantly affect an entire ecosystem in either positive or negative ways. Populations of other organisms may be altered, habitat changes can be observed, and biodiversity can rapidly change. American asters, along with the other late blooming flower species, are an important food source late in the growing season for maintaining a healthy population of pollinators, migrating birds, and over-wintering wildlife.

To learn more about seasonal changes and how our native species are adapted to handle these conditions, consider a visit to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you.

Sounds of the Season

It is late summer, heading into fall, and now is the time of year that the afternoons and evenings grow noisier. Some of the loudest species we hear throughout the year are currently active, calling to maintain contact with family members, to warn of impending threats, or to seek mates.

Singing insects are out at all times of the day and night. Crickets, katydids, grasshoppers, and cicadas four insect families active from late afternoon through the nighttime hours. These species all produce calls using a process known as stridulation. The edge at the base of a front wing, called a scraper, is rubbed across the base of the opposite wing, which has a bumpy surface called a file. This movement can produce buzzing or chirping sounds as well as melodic tones.

^{Annual cicada, Neotibicen spp., by Tony Cheng, Sep 2013}

Annual cicadas, Neotibicen spp., are a large insect averaging two inches in size with brown, green, or black bodies and white undersides. Adult males find spots among the branches of trees and woody shrubs where they can hang out and call for a mate. Calls can be heard throughout the day as a loud buzzing for several seconds that slowly fades to silence. Cicadas get louder with warmer temperatures towards late afternoon but cease all calling as dusk settles.

^{Common true katydid, Pterophylla camellifolia, male & female by TJWalker, U of FL}

^{Grey bush cricket, Gryllidae spp., by LHG Creative Photography, Jul 2010}

^{Grasshopper by Peter Miller, Nov 2020}

Katydids, Pterophylla camellifolia, are well-camouflaged with long, green wings that look much like the leaves of the plants they hide in. Despite their appearance, katydids along with crickets, from the family Gryllidae, and grasshoppers, from the family Acrididae, cannot fly. Katydids choose to occupy branches in tall trees, while crickets and grasshoppers prefer lower vegetation, including tall ground cover, from which to call for a mate. These insects will call well into the night on warm summer evenings, but quickly fade away once temperatures start to drop.

^{Common true katydid male, Pterophylla camellifolia, Carter County, MO, OSF-online}

^{Jumping bush cricket, Hapithus saltator, two calling by Daniel Parker, Sep 2023}

Many of these calls are among the loudest made by wildlife. A sound chamber, made by bowing out the wings from the body to create a hollow space, serves to amplify the sound. From the high-pitched melodic notes of the katydid to the chirping of crickets and grasshoppers, these calls can resonate and carry long distances.

^{Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus, by Frank Lambert, Dec 2016}

^{Eastern Screech Owl, Megascops asio, by Paul Driver, Sep 2023}

Against this background, we may also hear night birds, especially owls. In northern Illinois, great horned owls, Bubo virginianus, produces a series of low-pitched hoots to warn off territorial invader, call to a young one, or attract a mate. Eastern screech owl calls, Megascops asio, utter a long trill, lasting three to six seconds. Owl’s calls are easy to recognize and can be heard over long distances, making them an effective method of communication in the dark.

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, by Paul Marvin, Apr 2012}

^{Northern Raccoon, Procyon lotor, by Paul Driver, Sep 2010}

Other sounds that you may hear at night include coyotes, Canis latrans, using yips and barks to maintain contact with other individuals, or by young when begging for food. Long, drawn out howling is used to mark territorial boundaries and is often heard in response to emergency vehicle sirens, which we think are perceived as threats by coyote populations. Raccoons, Procyon lotor, are another species that is very active during the late nighttime hours approaching dawn. If they are close by, you may hear purring or chittering sounds used between adults and their young. Whether alone or in a group, when they are startled, raccoons will aggressively defend themselves and other family members emitting loud barking noises. Screams and growls between fighting individuals are often heard.

Late summer evenings can be quiet and slow or full of noises and events. Taking time to walk or sit quietly in your own backyards and listen can be a rewarding experience. Come to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or visit your local nature center to learn more about wild nights in your area.

^{Clockwise: Coyote, Canis latrans, by Paul Marvin, Apr 2012; Eastern screech owl-red morph, Megascops asio, by Laura M, Feb 2023; Great-horned owl, Bubo virginianus, by Don Miller, Jul 2016; Raccoon, Procyon lotor, by Alex ONeal, Aug 2010; Raccoon, Procyon lotor, by Ellya Selhub, Jan 2006}

Squirrels of Illinois

Squirrels are members of the family Rodentia, along with about 40% of all mammals species including mice, rats, voles, beavers, muskrats, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Rodents are characterized by the two front teeth on both the upper and lower jaws that grow continuously their entire lives.

^{Note incisors on left strike against each other to remain sharp; Molars grow in back of mouth}

^{Rodent dental system by V. Leche, professor Stockholm hogskola}

^{Guinea pig incisors by Morbakka, Oct 2024}

Squirrels in Illinois can be found in forested areas as well as urban communities. They all use their long tails for balance when climbing trees or resting on branches as well as running along branches, wires, and tops of walls. Squirrels are excellent climbers and can jump up to ten feet. They are able to gnaw and chew through almost any non-metal material.

^{Grey squirrel jumping to a fence top by AJ, Nov 2017}

Most species are solitary dwellers, but not territorial, able to live on their own, but in close association with other squirrels, rarely fighting for territory, food, or mates. They breed twice each year, once in winter and once in early summer. Two to four young are typically born and can fend for themselves after about two months. The young will often stay with the mother until the next litter is born.

Squirrels use tree cavities for raising young and for protection from predators, but most of the time they live in nests built of twigs and leaves high up in a tree. Nests are normally located near readily available water. They eat a variety of foods including nuts, berries, acorns, fruit, buds, fungi, seeds, and insects.

^{Fox squirrel by Corey Seeman, Jan 2023}

^{Fox squirrel by Corey Seeman, Jan 2020}

The fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, is the largest species in Illinois at about 22″ in length and weighing up to two pounds. Their fur is reddish-brown, with lighter shades on ears, bellies, and tail edges. They are common in urban areas, but are often found where there are no gray squirrels. Fox squirrels are most active in the early morning and late evening and are excellent swimmers.

^{Grey squirrel by Zoblinski,}
^{Getty Images}

^{Leucistic (white) grey squirrel}
^{by Pete Weiler, Pexels}

^{Melinistic (black) grey squirrel}
^{by Tom GV, Getty Images}

The Eastern gray squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis, is slightly smaller at about 18″ long and weighs about a pound. They have short, gray fur, but are often subject to genetic variations that result in different colored fur. Common variants in Illinois include melanistic or black squirrels, leucistic or white squirrels, and albino squirrels. Eastern gray squirrels are abundant in urban areas and large forested tracks. However, there are very few forests left in Illinois to support these animals.

^{Red squirrel by Christopher Defalco, Pexels}

Red squirrels, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, are small, about a foot long, weighing about a half pound. They have reddish-brown backs with white bellies and a dark orange stripe down their back in summertime. Red squirrels are found only in the northeast quarter of the state in large forested areas. They are diurnal, active in early morning and late evening.

^{Southern flying squirrel by EEI_Tony, Getty Images}

The Southern flying squirrel, Glaucomys volans, is the smallest species at about nine inches, weighing only two ounces. They have gray-red-brown backs with white bellies and are nocturnal, making them difficult to observe. Flying squirrels have large eyes to see better at night and a long, flattened tail that is used as a rudder when airborne. A flap of skin runs between the front and back legs on either side of their body and is stretched taut when their legs are spread, providing the ability to jump from a high place and glide down to a lower place. Unlike other squirrel species, flying squirrels share a communal nest during most of the year.

^{Northern flying squirrel by Dopeyden, Getty Images______While this is not the species found in Illinois, flight patterns are very similar…}

Squirrels play an important part in forest and urban tree regeneration. They bury acorns and other nuts in warmer months for winter food stores, but usually bury many more than they actually consume. The remainder are left to germinate, resulting in many new trees each year. Squirrels are fun to observe and can provide enjoyment and an opportunity to learn about wildlife behaviors. Come down to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you to learn more about these amazing animals.

Oak Tree Habitat, pt.1

Oak trees, genus Quercus, have over 400 species worldwide, but almost one-third are threatened with extinction. They are a keystone species, playing a central role in supporting the entire habitat in which they live. They maintain the structure and stability within their ecosystem, substantially affecting the types and abundance of other species. Oaks make up only 2% of plant species, but they directly support more than 30% of all plants and animals.

^{A great oak in Nottingham Forest by Peter Shaw, Getty Images}

Oak trees live from a few decades to several centuries. The Great Oak, Quercus agrifola, a species of Coast Live oak in California, is estimated to be over 2,000 years old. Oaks clean the air by absorbing pollution and sequestering carbon. They provide shelter, food, shade, and help to reduce erosion. Humans get food from the acorns, dyes from the tannin, and wood for construction, ships, and barrels, plus cork for stoppers and oak chips for smoking meat, fish, and cheese.

^{Red oak with new leaves, Quercus rubra, by aleroy4, Getty Images}

^{Oak forest leaf litter in winter by Whiteway, Getty Images Signature}

In spring, tender new leaves containing fresh sap are consumed by a variety of insects. In fall, older leaves will fall to the ground, but are slow to decompose, building up many layers of leaves over time which provide shelter for small woodland ground dwellers and food for decomposers.

^{Branches of red oak with catkins, Quercus rubra,}
^{by anmbph, Getty Images}

^{Texas Red Oak female flowers, Quercus buckleyi by Doug Goldman, USDA-NRCS National Plants Data Team}

Oak trees have both male and female flowers. Male flowers grow in early spring in long clusters hanging from tree limbs. The pollen is a favorite food for a large variety of insects, especially bees. Pollen is released slowly, over several weeks, to be blown by the wind to the female flowers, which appear as tiny, red flowers near the tips of twigs and new shoots. Female flowers are eaten by insects and are a favorite of red and gray squirrels. Oak flowers are one of the earliest food sources for animals in spring, and must be abundant on every tree so that some are able to survive to produce acorns, the seeds of the oak tree.

^{Bur Oak acorns, Quercus macrocarpa; Northern Red Oak acorns, Quercus rubra; Live Oak acorns, Quercus virginiana by Steve Hurst, ARS Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database;}

In late summer, after pollination, the female flower will produce a large, green nut called an acorn, which will mature in autumn, turn brown, and fall from the tree. Acorns are a nutritious food source for many animals, being high in energy, carbohydrates, and fat. In the eastern U.S., many species are dependent on acorn production, and the amount of available acorns significantly influences population sizes. Some acorns will find suitable ground for sending out a root and starting a new tree, but most will be eaten. Masting, an over-abundance of acorns, occurs every few years. It is thought that masting creates a better chance for new oak trees to grow by overwhelming the animal populations’ need for food. As a secondary result, animal populations may expand immediately following a mast year, only to have higher than normal mortality when food resources return to normal for the following years.

^{Bur Oak bark, Quercus macrocarpa by Herman, D.E., ND State Soil Conservation Committee, USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database}

^{Dead oak log in Bialowieza Forest by Nirian, Getty Images Signature}

Oak roots grow close to the ground’s surface and extend well beyond the circumference of the tree’s crown. A complex network of fungi live on the roots and provide additional nutrients to the tree, keeping both species healthy. As the trees grow and age, roots and bark develop crevices and holes in their surfaces, or chunks may become loose, providing niches for plants and animals to shelter and grow. Exposed wood gradually dies and decays providing even more habitat and food for decomposers and the other wildlife that live on them.

In our next post, we will take a look at some of the many species that oak trees directly and indirectly support with shelter, food, and breeding opportunities.

The Woodlands at the Turning, an Illinois oak savannah, by Justin Kern, Nov 4, 2013

Oak-Hickory Forest

Oak-hickory forests makeup one-fourth of all the woodlands in the eastern United States. At the end of the last ice age, oaks were only found in the Appalachian Mountains and the driftless section where glaciers did not form in southwestern Wisconsin. In the last 15,000 years they have repopulated the land from the Mississippi River to the Atlantic coastline.

Clockwise from top left: Quercus alba, white oak by Chris Andrei, Getty Images; Quercus palustris, northern pin oak by Michel VIARD, Getty Images; Quercus rubra, northern red oak by ValerijaP, Getty Images; Fraxinus pennsylvanica, green ash by Garsya, Getty Images; Carya ovata, shagbark hickory by Elmar Langle, Getty Images; Prunus serotina, black cherry tree by Ina Hensel, Getty Images

Oak-hickory forests are an open woodland community where trees make up less than 10% of the plant life. Species of both the red oak and the white oak groups dominate these wood including Northern red oak, Quercus rubra, black oak, Quercus velutina, white oak, Quercus alba, and bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa. Two members of the hickory family, shagbark hickory, Carya ovata, and bitternut hickory, Carya cordiformis, are also found in abundance. These forests are rich with several other tree species most notably red maple, Acer rubrum, sugar maple, Acer saccharum, black cherry, Prunus serotina, black walnut, Juglans nigra, and green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica.

^{Arisaema triphyllum berries by ES3N, Getty Images}

^{Arisaema triphyllum, jack-in-the-pulpit by Holcy, Getty Images}

The open structure of the forest supports a large variety of other plants that offer food, shelter from predators and weather, and places to raise a family. Food sources are plentiful including fruit-bearing plants of the genus Vaccinium, which includes blueberries and raspberries, and vines from the genus Vitis, which includes several species of wild grape. Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis, and Jack-in-the-pulpit, Arisaema triphyllum, along with several clovers, attract birds and insects that attract larger predators, creating a rich forest community. It is estimated that oak-hickory forests support over 300 animal species including birds, mammals, insects, reptiles and amphibians.

^{Oak woodland by fotoVoyager, Getty Images Signature}

Oak trees provide a haven for wildlife. Acorns, the fruit of an oak tree, are large and heavy, so they do not spread far from the tree. They offer good nutrition and are a favorite of many wildlife species, whether eaten immediately or cached and eaten over time. Oak trees retain their dead leaves throughout the winter, not letting them fall until early spring. The leaves provide shelter from wind and rain, as well as hiding many smaller birds and mammals from airborne predators. Oak trees have craggy bark providing shelter for insects and other small animals including many amphibian species that overwinter under the bark.

After dying, oak leaves retain tannin, a chemical that slows down their decay. As leaves build up on the forest floor year after year, they create thick layers used by amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, and insects for shelter from predators and weather. In winter, the leaf layer provides insulation from the snow and cold, allowing small animals to move around under the snow, hunting for food, or moving to other sites. However, the leaves can be advantageous to some predators, as well. Owls, and other nighttime hunters, have excellent hearing and can easily detect the sounds from crackling leaves as prey attempts to hide and flee.

^{Gnarled tree with large cavity from wepix, Getty Images Signature}

^{Nature lives forever in fallen trunks by Oleksiy Brunets, Getty Images}

Many tree species are susceptible to dry rot of their interior wood, and none more-so than members of the red oak family. This provides natural cavities for woodland species. Woodpeckers, owls, chickadees, and nuthatches, plus squirrels, raccoons, bats, amphibians, and reptiles all use cavities for shelter and protection. Almost 40% of animal species inhabiting oak-hickory forests will use cavities at some point in their lifetimes. As trunks and branches decay and fall to the forest floor, they create opportunities for food and shelter. In addition, animals drawn to these spaces provide food for larger predators.

As you walk through forested areas over the summer, take note of the tree species and the overall structure you observe Can you spot holes in trees, logs laying on the forest floor, and thicker layers of leaf cover? Are the woods open where you can see possible lanes of movement? What plants have fruit or seeds? Keeping a journal of observations helps us to identify the changes and enjoy these rich habitats.

^{Dry oak forest in springtime by Meinzahn, Getty Images}

^{Swamp oak forest in springtime by Aleksander, Getty Images}

Maple Trees

Maple trees in the northern U.S. are coming into bloom at this time of year. Maples bloom in late winter and early spring, and the flowers come in green, yellow, orange, and red hues. There are about 130 species worldwide, and except for one species, all are found in the northern hemisphere across Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America. Thirteen maple trees are native to North America, and we will take a look at a few of the more common ones.

^{Holland Red Maple Swamp, Wisconsin State Natural Area by Joshua Mayer, May 2012}

Several species are large trees, reaching from 40′ to 65′ in height with 20″ to 60″ diameter trunks. Trunks are dark grayish-brown with ridged bark. Crowns appear generally rounded and root systems are widely spread. Maple trees do well in most habitats, particularly moist to wet soil, along streams or in bottomlands.

^{Sugar maple in spring by J Stephen Conn, Jul 2007}

Sugar maple, Acer saccharum, is well known for its maple syrup, marketed world-wide. When temperatures drop below 40˚, maple trees stop growing and excess starch is stored until temperatures start to rise again. Enzymes in the tree change the starch into sugar which is carried by tree sap flowing through the xylem and phloem cells, located just beneath the bark. A tap gently pounded through the bark intercepts some of the sap and collects it into buckets. It takes 40 gallons of sap to produce one gallon of maple syrup. Historically, the wood was used for railroad rails, plow blades, and wagon wheels. After burning, its ashes are rich in potash and make excellent fertilizer as well as an additive for soap and pottery glazing.

^{Maple tree tapping by PublicDomainPictures , Pixabay}

Black maple, Acer nigrum, is a close relative to the sugar maple, and these two species easily hybridize. Both species are shade tolerant, often found growing together for several years as understory trees. Sap from black maple trees may also be used in maple syrup production. Black and sugar maples are hardwoods, stronger and harder than other maple species, and valued for use as basketball court and bowling alley floors, workbenches, cutting boards, and baseball bats.

^{Bowling alley by vtwinpixel, Getty Images; Maple & other baseball bats by Comstock Images: Maple workbenches from thelinke, Getty Images Signature}

Red maple, Acer rubrum, provides food from seeds, buds, and flowers for squirrels, chipmunks, deer, moose, and elk. In winter, stumps and small twigs are an important food source for rabbits. Pollen is produced early in the spring and is a much needed food source at this time of year for bees and other pollinators. Red maple is also attractive to insects and fungi, which invade the wood and create many open cavities in trunks and large branches, favored as nesting sites for wood ducks and other species.

^{Red maple buds & flowers by Martin LaBar, March 2010}

^{Baby squirrel in maple tree by William Krumpelman, Getty Images}

Red maple has several qualities that have made it a widely used ornamental tree. It grows well in shady sites; it is tolerant of flooding and water-logged soils; it is one of the first to colonize disturbed sites and anchor the soil, and it has a rapid growth rate, colorful flowers and foliage, and lives 75 to 100 years. Maple flavored drinks, such as tea, are made from inner bark scrapings. Bark is also used in the production of ink and black or brown dyes. The wood is used for smoking meat and in the production of some whisky varieties.

Silver maple, Acer saccharinum, is a fast growing tree with a root system attracted to any source of water. It is easily grown in shady areas and wet soils, make it a well-liked ornamental tree. However, it causes many sewer and drain issues in urban settings in its search for water. The wood is hard but very brittle, and branches easily break in heavy winds. This often results in trunks having hollow cavities used for shelter by various animal species including wood ducks and squirrels. Seeds are abundant and are a favorite for birds and small mammals. The sap makes a delicious syrup, but requires twice as much volume as sugar maple trees, making it not commercially viable.

Box elder, Acer negundo, is another maple species that is often found near water. This tree easily tolerates drought and extreme cold, although the wood is weak compared to other maple species, and branches often break when subjected to heavy loads of snow and ice. Box elder produces abundant seeds late in the year that provide a great winter food source for mice, squirrels, and seed-eating birds. Branches are small in diameter, so it is not often used for lumber, but it has several uses as pulp wood for producing crates, boxes, and composite wood panels.

^{Under the spreading maple by Jo Zimny, Oct 2020}

As you are out walking in your area, be sure to look for the many species of maple trees that grow in yards and woodlands, often distinguished by bright flowers, abundant seeds, and lively green foliage. Also, be sure to take the chance to observe their spectacular fall foliage later in the year.

Weasels

Weasels are members of the Mustelidae family, a group of carnivores that also includes badgers, otters, ferrets, martens, minks, and wolverines. All species have long necks and bodies with short legs, small, round ears, and thick fur. They are solitary animals that are active year-round, mostly at night. They use strong smelling scents from anal glands to mark their territory and signal other individuals when seeking a mate.

^{Clockwise: Black-footed ferret, Mustela nigripes, by J. Michael Lockhart, USFWS, Dec 2010; American mink, Neogale vison, by Patrick Reijnders; Common badger, Meles meles meles, by Prosthetic Head, Jun 2010; Wolverine, Gulo gulo, by National Park Service, 1968; Pine marten, Martes martes, by John Surrey, May 2015; Eurasian otter, Lutra lutra, by Bernard Landgraf, Jan 2005}

There are five species of weasels native to the Americas. Short-tailed weasels, also-known-as stoats, Mustela erminea and least weasels, Mustela nivalis, are found in the Arctic regions of northern Canada and Alaska. The long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenata, ranges from southern Canada through most of the continental United States to Central America and the northern areas of South America. Two other species of weasels that live in northern and central South America include the Colombian weasel, Neogale felipei, and the Amazon weasel, Neogale africana. The odd species name for the Amazon weasel was first derived from a museum skeleton that had been mislabeled as originating in Africa.

^{Short-tailed weasel, Mustela erminea, summer coat by Steve Hillebrand, USFWS, Nov 2012}

^{Short-tailed weasel, Mustela erminea, winter coat by Steven Hint, Mar 2011}

In summer, weasels are sandy-brown on their backs with light colored bellies and black-tipped tails. Species found in far northern regions molt twice each year, when their fur, except for the tail, changes to white for the winter. They have small heads with long whiskers and small, rounded ears. Necks and bodies are long and slim with short legs. Weasels are found in a variety of habitats from farmland to forested areas, but are often located along an open water source such as streams, rivers, and estuaries. The Colombian weasel has partial webbing of its feet, suggesting a semi-aquatic lifestyle. Long-tailed weasels and Amazon weasels have been observed easily swimming in larger bodies of water.

With their elongated bodies, weasels are able to easily follow prey into burrows, as well as through paths under ground cover such as leaves, snow and ice. Weasels are carnivores, hunting small mammals, birds, insects, and crustaceans. They are generally nocturnal hunters with keen senses of smell and hearing, making them capable predators. The least weasel, with a body between five and ten inches in length, has more biting power than a lion or hyena. A rabbit, its favorite prey, is five to ten times the size and weight of a weasel, but the weasel easily dispatches its prey by gripping the back of the neck to break the spine and kill it. Weasels are excellent climbers, allowing them to pursue prey off the ground.

^{Least weasel, Mustela nivalis by Keven Law, Aug 2008}

^{Least weasel, Mustela nivalis, summer in Alaska by Cecil Sanders, Aug 2008}

Weasel dens are built in burrows abandoned by other animals. A nest of grass and leaves is lined with fur from their prey. Mustelids use a reproductive strategy called embryonic diapause, found in very few mammal species. After conception, the new embryo enters a phase where it remains dormant for a period of time before implanting itself in the uterine wall to begin growth and development. The gestation period can be extended up to a year until conditions are optimal for the survival of both the offspring and the mother. In long-tailed weasels mating takes place in mid to late summer, but babies are born the following spring, when temperatures are warmer and food resources are plentiful and readily available.

Weasels mate in mid to late summer, and young are born the following spring. Kits are blind and deaf for the first two to three weeks after being born, but grow quickly and are weaned between five and six weeks. In most species, both males and females are sexually active before the end of their first summer. In one species, the short-tailed weasel, living in northern areas with short summers, females are sexually mature at two to three weeks while still blind and deaf following birth. Most are sexually mated before they are weaned. Kits will leave the nest to claim their own territory before their first winter.

^{Long-tailed weasel, Mustela frenata, in Seattle Washington by Janis Coralee Leonhardi, Jun 2021}

Most species worldwide are listed as of least concern, with strong populations. An exception is the Colombian weasel, about which very little is known. The first live one was discovered by an amateur naturalist in 2011. There are fewer than a dozen documented animals living in riparian habitats in the cloud forests of Colombia above 5,000 feet. It is thought they are doing well, but too little is known of this relatively new species. The Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or most local nature museums have wonderful displays of weasels and other members of the mustelid family for you to learn more.

A Big, Cool One

Elephants are the largest land mammals and they live in a variety of habitats in tropical and subtropical regions. Their native habitat is often savanna, grassland or forest although they can also be found in desert, swamp, and highlands. These areas get twelve hours of sunlight each day, with warm, daily temperatures averaging from the lower 70s to above 100˚F for animals living in the desert. Heat and gravity are two natural factors that affect all large animals, and elephants have some unique methods and body design to compensate for both.

^{Walking in Kruger National Park by Simone Eman, simoneemanphotos}

Elephants have a massive skeleton with solid bones in their feet, legs, hips, and ribs that provide excellent support for all of their weight. Lots of muscles, both large and small, allow easy movement while still protecting their vital organs. But not all of the bones are solid. The skull is honeycombed throughout, so it is light enough that the neck can support the head and allow for many small and precise movements of the trunk, the ears, and the tusks. The brain is small for an animal of this size, but elephants are quick learners, have an excellent memory, and are one of the smartest animals.

^{Elephant’s foot by sboofek, Getty Images}

^{Elephants foot tread by skynavin, Getty Images}

While small animals, such as ants, can hang on to a vertical surface, elephants require a solid set of legs to stand and walk on. They actually stand on the tips of their toes, located along the front edge of the foot. The center and back of the foot is one large pad behind and under the toes that cushions each step and helps to carry their weight. The large, round flat of the foot spreads the weight evenly over a larger area, and their soles have treads to provide traction on slippery or uneven surfaces.

^{Elephant ears by Harvey Sapir, Pexels}

Heat from the sun, and from the exertion of the muscles performing under the tremendous weight of the body, must be dissipated efficiently. This task is handled by the elephant’s ears, which are very large and very thin. Hundreds of blood vessels run through each ear close to the skin to radiate heat away from the body. The blood, now cooled, can be circulated throughout the body. Skin over the rest of the body is thicker, but there is little to no fat underneath, nor is there any fur or hair covering the outside to trap heat. The skin also has many wrinkles creating much more surface area than smooth skin, allowing more heat to be lost to cooler air and water.

^{Celery anyone…by eugen_z, Getty Images}

An elephant’s trunk is a nose-arm-hand all wrapped into one. They can pick up large and heavy objects as well as being able to manipulate the sensitive tip to grab tiny and delicate objects. To help control the heat, they often will suck in a trunkful of water and using the end of the trunk like a shower head, spray all of the water across their body to wet down and cool off. Similarly, they can snuffle up a load of dust to spray across dry or wet skin to create a coating to help keep away biting insects and provide protection from the sun.

Elephants are built to move easily and efficiently in their environment, and they have several methods and adaptations to deal with their size and the heat. Next week we will discover more about family life and the lands they live in.

The Elephant Trunk

An elephant’s trunk is an amazing body part. It is a 300 pound nose-arm-hand about seven feet long. It contains 50,000 muscles, but no bones or cartilage, making it strong and flexible. A vast array of nerves controls it. Elephants use their trunks for a variety of tasks including:
• smelling an approaching rainstorm from 150 miles away
• locating food by smell including grass, branches, and fruit
• lifting objects up to 400 pounds
• reaching food 20 feet off the ground
• using it as a snorkel when swimming underwater
• using the top and bottom lip to pick up a single seed off the ground
• sucking up to 2.5 gallons of water and squirting it into their mouths
• sucking up water to squirt over their backs to cool off
• curling it around large quantities of food to place in their mouths
• controlling the shape and size of the nostril to modulate sounds
• snorting dirt to spray over their backs
• picking up and throwing objects in defense
• entwining with another’s trunk for a friendly hug

Boreal Forest in Winter

The boreal forest is the largest tract of woodland on earth covering 11% of all land area, half again as large as the Amazon rainforest. It stores 30% of the sequestered carbon on earth. The area also contains a mosaic of wet meadows, ponds, lakes, marshes, and bogs interlaced among the trees. Tree species include many conifers, dominated by spruce, plus aspen, birch, willow and alder. The animal life is abundant, with every species that was there before European settlement still remaining.

^{Boreal Forest panorama by Mliberra, getty Images}

The boreal forest is distinguished by short, hot, wet summers and long, dry, cold winters. When the last glaciers retreated northward, many holes and fissures were left behind. As the ice melted, all of these depressions were filled with water. The underlying geology is mostly granite shield, a rock layer that holds the water in and contains few minerals that dissolve in water, yielding very clear water that does not promote algae or bacteria growth. Most lake life is found in the shallow, warmer edges which also provide support to nearly all of the land-based fauna.

^{From upper left clockwise: Alder tree by Mantonature, Getty Images Signature; Spruce trees by Hannu Koskela, Getty Images; Willow tree by smarko , Pixabay; Aspen trees by Adamisovitsch, Getty Images}

Winter time presents many challenges including less sunlight, colder temperatures, less available water, less food and shelter, and increased severe storms. Animals that are active daily have higher energy requirements in winter. They must often change their dietary sources to whatever is available in winter. Grey squirrels and beavers cache food during warmer periods. Birds eat foods higher in calories such as nuts, seeds, dried fruit, and insects found under tree bark. When changes are consistent from year to year, species develop adaptations to meet the requirements of each season and are able to live comfortably throughout the year.

Shelter becomes not only a place to hide from predators, but also provides protection from weather extremes. Snow of different thicknesses and weight covers the landscape. Snow is also a great insulator, keeping cold winds away from exposed skin. There is normally a layer of air between the ground and the snow cover immediately above. Temperatures in this space are warmer than the exposed air above the snow creating a winter habitat that is vitally important for many species. Mice and voles create burrows under the snow where they can huddle together for added warmth. Similarly, air pockets surrounded by a heavy growth of conifer needles create spaces above the snow cover for birds and some larger mammals to shelter. And many larger species will nestle into the snow pack to shelter from storms and wind.

^{Spruce grouse by Impr2003, Getty Images}

^{Willow ptarmigan by Alex Berger, Mar 2022}

Spruce grouse, Canachites canadensis, and willow ptarmigan, Lagopus lagopus, are not able to fly more than several yards. They grow feathers on their feet to insulate them and aid in traction. Grouse use the air layer at ground level to shelter in.

^{Portrait of a snowshoe hare by Jim Cumming, Getty Images}

^{Canada lynx by Carol Gray, Getty Images}

Ptarmigan, along with snowshoe hares, Lepus americanus, and short-tailed weasels, Mustela erminea, all change color to pure white to hide from predators. Snowshoe hare and Canada lynx, Lynx canadensis, have very large feet that aid in walking on snow without sinking in. Arctic fox, Vulpes lagopus, are winter specialists with compact bodies and short legs and ears that limit their exposure to cold, and large, furry paws that enable them to walk on top of the snowpack. With their long, bushy tails wrapped around their heads, they can withstand winds and temperatures to fifty below zero.

^{Stayin’ warm, Arctic fox by PEDRE, Getty Images Signature}

You can learn more about this cold but wondrous habitat by searching online for boreal forest, referring to the southern portions of the habitat, or taiga, referring to the northern portions. Also, look for information concerning seasonal adaptations for species in your own area, or visit a local natural history museum such as the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum in Lisle, Illinois.

Why Do Woodpeckers Peck Wood?

Some central North America bird species, including chickadees, woodpeckers, nuthatches, and sapsuckers chisel cavities in dead or dying trees to create shelter and to find food. Many of these birds are year-round inhabitants, and their efforts are easier to observe during late autumn and winter when there are few leaves to obscure our view. Today we will investigate how beak sizes, beak shapes, and several other adaptations contribute to woodpecker woodworking skills.

^{_{Pictures above clockwise from top left: Yellow-bellied sapsucker by Keith Williams, May 2015; White-breasted nuthatch by Canopic, Feb 2021; Red-Breasted nuthatch by Doug Greenberg, Sep 2018; Black-capped chickadee by CCPoor, Mar 2012}}

Woodpecker beaks are thick and sturdy, with a chisel-like tip to cut away wood in small chips. The hard-hitting tip exerts about 1200 Gs of force up to twenty times each second. This amount of force is equivalent to a human hitting their head against a brick wall at 16mph. A human brain floats inside the skull surrounded by cerebrospinal fluid. When our head stops suddenly the brain continues moving forward until it is stopped by the skull. If the force is hard enough, this may result in a concussion. A woodpecker’s brain fits snugly inside its skull and moves and stops in conjunction with skull movement. Inside the skull, the bone is spongy, absorbing energy from the brain moving after the skull stops, managing the impact without harm.

Pileated woodpecker started a new cavity by Peter Stevens, Jan 2020

Other bodily adaptations also help to control and dissipate the energy resulting from pecking activities. A woodpeckers top beak overhangs the bottom beak, forcing pecking vibrations downward, away from the skull and through the muscles to the rib cage. Additional ribs are present at the top of the rib cage, attaching strong muscles to the skull that assist in managing the vibrations.

Hairy woodpecker by Jerry McFarland, Jun 2014

A woodpecker’s body is held very steady by feet that are adapted to gripping in a vertical position, pulling the body tight to the trunk. At the same time, the pygostyle, a set of fused bones located at the base of the backbone with strong muscles running the length of the tail, allow the bird to stiffen the tail and wedge it against the tree trunk. Claws, feet, and tail provide strong structural support as the bird works to chisel out a cavity from solid wood.

Red-bellied woodpecker gripping tree with braced tail by Jim Mullhaupt, Jul 2014

A woodpecker’s eyes contain two additional organs not usually found in other bird species. The pecten and choroid surround the sides and back of the eye socket. They are filled with fluid right before pecking is started to compress the eyeball into the socket and minimize all vibrations affecting the eyes as the bill strikes wood. Additionally, an extra thick nictating membrane, the clear, third eyelid present in all birds, helps protect the eyes from flying chips.

Smaller woodpecker species, including the downy woodpecker, have beaks with less of a chisel shape and more of a point. The beak is used to punch through thin bark layers and pick out small insects from tunnels running under the tree bark. Insects living inside grass, weed stems, and galls can be easily extracted by a finely pointed beak.

Downy woodpecker on grass by Adam Buzzo, Feb 2018

Woodpeckers provide a vital role in forest habitats. Whether a species migrates or not, most will likely change locations for better food sources, warmer weather, or breeding at one or more times during the year. Each time they move, they create a new nesting cavity. As old cavities are abandoned, there are 40 or more other species waiting to use these cavities for shelter, protection, or hunting. As you take your winter walks, be on the lookout for active cavities among the woodland trees in your area – and the species that are actually using them!

_{Nesting northern flicker by Dagny Gromer, Apr 2021}

_{Nesting wren in woodpecker cavity by Rick Cameron, May 2010}

^{Nesting starling in woodpecker cavity by Rick Leche, Apr 2008}

Forest Litter, Hand Lens Views

This week we take a look at one other group of species found in the forest litter, those that we can best observe using a hand lens. Springtails are tiny insects colored gray, brown, and white. They are wingless with a worm-like body, and are named for a unique abdominal structure that allows them to suddenly jump. They are extremely numerous, ranging from 500 to 50,000 individuals per square meter. Springtails may form dense groups that come out in winter on top of new fallen snow earning them the nickname “snow fleas.” They are an important species of decomposer feeding on fungi, decaying vegetation, and live vegetation.

Springtail, genus *Isotoma*, by Ryszard, Aug 2009

Springtails, aka Snow Fleas, by mwms1916, Mar 2015

Soil mites are members of the arachnid family, the same as spiders. When viewed up close, they may look like tiny spiders having four pairs of legs, and a rounded, glossy abdomen in a variety of dark earth tones. Soil mites are decomposers, as well as predators. They feed mostly on decaying vegetation, but also eat springtails, round worms, and fungi.

Red velvet soil mite, *Trombidium sp*, by Alexey Nikodimov, Apr 2018

Pseudoscorpions, also called false scorpions, look like real scorpions without the dagger-like abdomen. They carry no poison, but have two large claw-like appendages in front. They are predators of springtails, soil mites, and certain worm species. Pseudoscorpions have no eyes or ears, living in the dark soil just below the leaf litter. Almost as numerous as springtails and soil mites, they depend on scent and vibration to locate their prey.

Pseudoscorpion by Philippe Garcelon, Mar 2021

Pseudoscorpion by Philippe Garcelon, Oct 2018

Other animal species that can be observed with either your eyes or a hand lends include ants and beetles. These two groups are quite diverse and can be found in all habitats and soil types.

Eastern Bess beetle larva, by Katja Schultz, Jul 2014

Ground beetles by Bernard DuPont, Feb 2006

Beetles make up the largest order of insects with over 300,000 known species. They can be found under decaying logs, under loose bark, and in the leaf litter. They are especially attracted to light sources at night. The larval stage of a beetle is called a grub, often found in shallow soil layers both on the forest floor as well as in our own backyards. Beetles feed on decaying vegetation, live roots, and other plant parts. They are a major food source for a variety of birds, mammals, arachnids, and other predatory insects.

Ants in bark by Michael Jefferies, Mar 2010

Ants are another insect group, forming vast colonies organized into social castes. There is a single queen in each colony plus thousands of workers and soldiers. Each individual has an appointed job serving the colony. Ants provide several ecological functions in any habitat: predators, scavengers, pollinators, recyclers, and soil aerators. Ant species are split into four groups identified as carpenter ants, little black ants, red ants and fire ants.

Forests are stopping grounds for many migrating species of birds, mammals, and insects. Forest litter is an excellent layer of insulation, and many of the species we have reviewed are active throughout the year, providing food for migrators and ecological services to the other year-round inhabitants. I encourage you to get out and observe this exciting habitat as you hike the forest paths this autumn.