color – Discover-Nature

Red Panda

The red panda, Ailurus fulgens, a small mammal closely related to weasels and raccoons, is found in the Himalayan and Tibetan mountain ranges of Nepal, Bhutan, and southern China. There are two subspecies, the Himalayan red panda and the Chinese red panda, differentiated by slight skull and color variations. They were isolated almost 200,000 years ago by glaciation in the Brahmaputra River Valley.

Red pandas live in steeply sloped, heavily forested areas where bamboo grows in dense thickets and there is easy access to water. Their habitat ranges in altitude from 6,500 feet to over 14,000 feet, in a temperate area with average temperatures in the upper sixties (Fahrenheit). These mountain ranges contain many protected pockets of forest, interconnected with wildlife corridors through unprotected country. Some areas overlap habitat where the Giant Panda lives, and the two species must share the bamboo in these locations.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, by Pixabay 27707, Sep 2015}

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, climbing at Taronga Zoo, by Charles Wong}

The red panda has a round head with a short snout and white fringed, triangular ears. Adults are 24″ long and weigh about 15 pounds. Their fur is dense, reddish-brown and covered with dark guard hairs. A black belly and legs, with a white muzzle and alternating red and buff rings along an 18″ tail, ensures that the red panda is well camouflaged in a forested area covered in red moss and white lichen. They have five curved claws on each foot that can be partially retracted in addition to flexible joints in their pelvis and hind limbs and an elongated wrist bone ending in a false thumb. All of these adaptations allow for a great range of motion when climbing and moving about the forest.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, mom and newborn by Rainer Halama, Jul 2013}

Red panda, Ailurus fulgens, twittering

The red panda lives in solitude, except during mating season in late winter when they cautiously seek out mates, resting and feeding near one another for short periods. Mating occurs on the ground, and gestation lasts 13 weeks, but can be prolonged up to 24 weeks at the discretion of the mother. The female selects a den site, building a nest of sticks, leaves, grass, and moss. Litters are between 1 and 4 babies weighing only 3 to 4 ounces at birth. Babies are born covered in fur for warmth, but blind for their first 18 days. They depend on their mother for everything for three to five months, and will not leave home until a year has passed.

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, sunbathing by Su-May, Sep 2011}

_{Red panda, Ailurus fulgrens, Conservation of energy by Tina R Tiller}

Red pandas move easily through the trees as well as over open ground. Trees next to bamboo stands provide places to sit higher up and eat, but the forest also provides shelter, an escape route from potential predators, and branches to sunbathe on in colder weather. If temperatures become too bitter, red pandas can lower their metabolic rates, curl into a tight ball, and sleep for a few hours to conserve warmth and energy. Bamboo makes up a large part of their diet, but it is supplemented with fruits, flowers, eggs, small mammals and birds. They prefer to eat early in the morning and late in the afternoon, while intermittently sleeping during the remaining hours.

_{Chinese red panda, Ailurus fulgens, named Kinta at Nogeyama Zoo, by Toshihiro Gamo}

Red pandas are on the endangered species list with decreasing populations near 10,000 in the wild. Their primary predators include leopards and jackals, which they can escape from using their climbing skills and agility through rocky and forested areas. But their main threat comes from poachers who prize their fur and bushy tails for the hat making industry and habitat destruction and land development that is steadily cutting large forests into small, isolated acreages. Red pandas have been well studied and are a favorite species at many zoos. Consider getting out this year to see them and learn more at a zoo near you.

Forest Floor

Two main types of forests grow in the regions between the tropics and the poles, deciduous forest and coniferous forest. A majority of energy from sunlight is captured by the canopy vegetation, with little leftover to reach the forest floor. And yet, the lowest level of the forest has an abundance of food and organisms.

Deciduous species are mainly hardwoods including oak, birch, maple, ash, beech, and hickory. These trees have leaves that are broad and flat, designed to catch sunlight. Conifer forests are made up mostly of softwood tree species from the pine and fir families. Most conifers have leaves that are long, thin, and needle-like, a compact form of leaf that is often waxy and designed to withstand the rigors of an environment that is cold and dry for long periods.

^{Green ash tree leaf in summer & autumn by Alain de Maximy}

Chlorophyll is a chemical that is synthesized by plants and gives leaves and needles their characteristic green color. Plants use chlorophyll to absorb energy from sunlight and use that energy to power the process of photosynthesis which creates carbohydrates, providing food for the rest of the plant. Senescence, the process that occurs when a plant stops making chlorophyll, happens as seasons change and day length shortens while temperatures fall. As chlorophyll is removed, leaves and needles lose their green hues and show their underlying colors of browns, reds, and oranges even as they die and fall to the forest floor.

^{Black beetle on forest floor by Undefined, Getty Images; Forest floor fungi cluster in Autumn woods by Vladimir Srajber, Pexels; Springtail on fallen log by Henrik L, Getty Images; Lush moss covering the forest floor by Doina Gherban}

Fallen leaves create a thick layer of litter, broken down by a rich variety of decomposers including mosses, fungi, insects, and other invertebrates. Decaying vegetation releases nutrients back into the soil to be used once more as food for other forest plants. The annual leaf fall adds an estimated 2,600 pounds of vegetation per acre back into forest habitats worldwide.

In deciduous forests, all of the leaves typically fall in late autumn opening up the forest floor to sunlight in early spring. A group of plants known as spring ephemerals take advantage of this sunlight to quickly flower, bloom, and reproduce before leaves re-appear and shade once more rules the forest floor. In conifer forests, where shade is ever-present, flora is restricted to shade-loving species such as ferns and fungi. In addition, fir and pine tree needles are high in acid content and their leaf litter is only broken down by a relatively few fungi species over long periods of time.

All forest floors are rich with many organisms present throughout the year. Invertebrates including insects, fungi, and small mammals spend their entire lives living in the leaf litter. Detritus from leaf fall provides food and nutrients throughout the year to the plants and other organisms living in these wonderful habitats. As you walk the forests, no matter what the season, think about all of the life going on around you each day on the rich woodland floor.

American Asters

As we enter early autumn, it is late in the growing season for the central United States, and many insect species are still actively looking for pollen and nectar as they get ready for winter. Migrating birds and species that overwinter here are also seeking daily meals. Fall flowering plant species are much fewer in number than summer blooming species, but include varieties of American asters, Symphyotrichum spp.; goldenrod, Solidago spp.; black-eyed Susans, Rudbeckia spp.; coneflower, Echinacea spp.; sedum, Sedum spp.; and anise hyssop, Agastache spp.

^{American Aster by Andrew McKinlay, Aug 2013; Anise hyssop by Steve Guttman, Oct 2011; Black-eyed Susan by Jodi Grundig, Aug 2009; Coneflower by Bonnie Leer, Jul 2008; Goldenrod by Cathy Baird, Aug 2013; Sedum by Eleanor Martin, Jul 2009}

In this blog, we take a look at American asters, which make up a genus of over 100 species of perennial plants, all of which are native to North America. Asters like full or partial sun and reach heights of between one and six feet. They display a variety of colors from white to blue to purple. They do best in wet soils. Asters are often grown in pots or used in borders, as well as being found in a variety of wild habitats including forests, savannas, prairies, and wetlands.

^{American painted lady on Pacific aster by TJ Gehling, Oct 2023; Gulf fritillary on white aster by Vicki DeLoach, Ot 2012; Leaf cutter bee, Megachile spp, on New England aster, by GreenRavenPhotography, Sep 2016; Metallic green bee on white aster by Jacqui Trump, Oct 2021; Pecks skipper, Polites peckius, on smooth blue aster, Symphyotrichum laeve, by Tom Potterfield, Sep 2016}

These asters are an excellent source of nectar and pollen sought by both long-tongued and short-tongued bees, butterflies, wasps, and beetles. All parts of the plant are edible, although some species may contain mild toxins, making the animal eating it ill. Leaves and stems are eaten by grouse, turkey, chipmunks, mice, and deer. The abundant seeds are available long after most other flower seeds have been consumed or buried. Large quantities of seeds are eaten by migrating bird species including dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis; indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea; American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea; and American goldfinch, Spinus tristis.

^{American goldfinch, Spinus tristis, by F Delventhal, Jul 2022; American tree sparrow, Spizelloides arborea, by Tom Benson, Nov 2018; Dark-eyed junco, Junco hyemalis, by Stan Lupo, Mat 2020; Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea, by Mitchell McConnell, Apr 2013}

Asters are sometimes referred to as a keystone species. Keystone species can be either plants or animals that are essential to maintaining the health and functions of the entire ecosystem to which they belong. The introduction or loss of a keystone species may significantly affect an entire ecosystem in either positive or negative ways. Populations of other organisms may be altered, habitat changes can be observed, and biodiversity can rapidly change. American asters, along with the other late blooming flower species, are an important food source late in the growing season for maintaining a healthy population of pollinators, migrating birds, and over-wintering wildlife.

To learn more about seasonal changes and how our native species are adapted to handle these conditions, consider a visit to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you.

Squirrels of Illinois

Squirrels are members of the family Rodentia, along with about 40% of all mammals species including mice, rats, voles, beavers, muskrats, guinea pigs, and hamsters. Rodents are characterized by the two front teeth on both the upper and lower jaws that grow continuously their entire lives.

^{Note incisors on left strike against each other to remain sharp; Molars grow in back of mouth}

^{Rodent dental system by V. Leche, professor Stockholm hogskola}

^{Guinea pig incisors by Morbakka, Oct 2024}

Squirrels in Illinois can be found in forested areas as well as urban communities. They all use their long tails for balance when climbing trees or resting on branches as well as running along branches, wires, and tops of walls. Squirrels are excellent climbers and can jump up to ten feet. They are able to gnaw and chew through almost any non-metal material.

^{Grey squirrel jumping to a fence top by AJ, Nov 2017}

Most species are solitary dwellers, but not territorial, able to live on their own, but in close association with other squirrels, rarely fighting for territory, food, or mates. They breed twice each year, once in winter and once in early summer. Two to four young are typically born and can fend for themselves after about two months. The young will often stay with the mother until the next litter is born.

Squirrels use tree cavities for raising young and for protection from predators, but most of the time they live in nests built of twigs and leaves high up in a tree. Nests are normally located near readily available water. They eat a variety of foods including nuts, berries, acorns, fruit, buds, fungi, seeds, and insects.

^{Fox squirrel by Corey Seeman, Jan 2023}

^{Fox squirrel by Corey Seeman, Jan 2020}

The fox squirrel, Sciurus niger, is the largest species in Illinois at about 22″ in length and weighing up to two pounds. Their fur is reddish-brown, with lighter shades on ears, bellies, and tail edges. They are common in urban areas, but are often found where there are no gray squirrels. Fox squirrels are most active in the early morning and late evening and are excellent swimmers.

^{Grey squirrel by Zoblinski,}
^{Getty Images}

^{Leucistic (white) grey squirrel}
^{by Pete Weiler, Pexels}

^{Melinistic (black) grey squirrel}
^{by Tom GV, Getty Images}

The Eastern gray squirrel, Sciurus carolinensis, is slightly smaller at about 18″ long and weighs about a pound. They have short, gray fur, but are often subject to genetic variations that result in different colored fur. Common variants in Illinois include melanistic or black squirrels, leucistic or white squirrels, and albino squirrels. Eastern gray squirrels are abundant in urban areas and large forested tracks. However, there are very few forests left in Illinois to support these animals.

^{Red squirrel by Christopher Defalco, Pexels}

Red squirrels, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, are small, about a foot long, weighing about a half pound. They have reddish-brown backs with white bellies and a dark orange stripe down their back in summertime. Red squirrels are found only in the northeast quarter of the state in large forested areas. They are diurnal, active in early morning and late evening.

^{Southern flying squirrel by EEI_Tony, Getty Images}

The Southern flying squirrel, Glaucomys volans, is the smallest species at about nine inches, weighing only two ounces. They have gray-red-brown backs with white bellies and are nocturnal, making them difficult to observe. Flying squirrels have large eyes to see better at night and a long, flattened tail that is used as a rudder when airborne. A flap of skin runs between the front and back legs on either side of their body and is stretched taut when their legs are spread, providing the ability to jump from a high place and glide down to a lower place. Unlike other squirrel species, flying squirrels share a communal nest during most of the year.

^{Northern flying squirrel by Dopeyden, Getty Images______While this is not the species found in Illinois, flight patterns are very similar…}

Squirrels play an important part in forest and urban tree regeneration. They bury acorns and other nuts in warmer months for winter food stores, but usually bury many more than they actually consume. The remainder are left to germinate, resulting in many new trees each year. Squirrels are fun to observe and can provide enjoyment and an opportunity to learn about wildlife behaviors. Come down to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you to learn more about these amazing animals.

White, Yellow, Green?

Polar bears, Ursus maritimus, live in the Arctic and are heavily dependent on the ice floes where they hunt, breed, and spend a majority of their lives, making them the only bear to be classified as a marine mammal. They are strong swimmers and are able to maintain a steady 6 mph swim speed for several hours, crossing long distances between ice floes. Polar bears are a relatively new species, having branched off from the brown bear family about 150,000 years ago. Their close family relationship enables them to breed with brown bears, and grizzly / polar bear cubs have been observed, although not often.

^{Polar bear, Ursus maritimus, walking on}
^{sea ice by vladsilver, Getty Images Pro}

^{Polar bear, Ursus maritimus, swimming in}
^{Arctic Ocean by FrankHildebrand, Getty Images Signature}

Many other marine animals inhabit the world of ice including the polar bear’s favorite prey: seals coming out of the water over the edge of an ice floe. Bears often wait at these locations for a chance to grab a seal with heavy, sharp claws. But seals are wary and slippery, and bears do not often capture them, losing 9 out of every 10 they hunt. Their white fur should help to conceal them against a background of snow and ice. But as you look at the following pictures, are they really white or yellow or tan or even green?

^{Polar bear in white by}
^{dagsjo, Getty Images Signature}

^{Polar bear in yellow by}
^{ekvals, Getty Images Signature}

^{Polar bear in green by}
^{Asten, Sep 2006}

A polar bear’s fur has a top layer of guard hairs and a bottom layer called the undercoat. Guard hairs are much longer and completely cover the undercoat. Both hair types are transparent with no pigment of any color. The guard hairs are hollow tubes filled with air that scatter visible light into all the different wavelengths of the spectrum. When we see a structure scattering light, it appears to be white. However, polar bears rarely look completely white, except in the spring after their annual molt when they shed their old fur and grow a new coat.

Most of the time, polar bear coats are shades of yellow or tan, possibly with some darker colors. Oils rubbed off from their prey, including fat from seal and whale bodies, tinge the fur in shades of light yellow or tan. When they are on land, constant contact with dirt and other environmental elements may add darker colors to their fur. Polar bears work hard to keep their fur clean and in good condition. When combined with a thick layer of fat on the inside of their skin, it is the best insulation against the outside environment where they live. Clean fur also provides good camouflage when stalking prey. They may roll in snow or wash off in the ocean to clean their fur.

^{Rolling in the snow by webguzs, Getty Images}

Bears that live in captivity, outside the Arctic, may display shades of green in their fur. Algae growing in warmer waters of captive environments gets inside the guard hair tubes, which make an ideal environment for it to grow. Neither saltwater nor extremely cold water, both found in Arctic environments, support the growth of algae. A long soak in saltwater is a popular restorative cure for bears in zoos.

^{Polar bear bathing at the zoo by iSailorr, Getty Images}

Come to see our polar bear at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum to learn more fascinating facts about this iconic species. For information or to make a reservation, please click here: Visit JSNM

Pamir Wildlife

The Pamir Mountains form the western edge of the Tibetan Plateau. A pamir is a high-altitude valley or plateau surrounded by mountains. Many valleys in this range exceed 14,000 feet in altitude, and peaks reach well above 20,000 feet, making these some of the highest mountains on the Euroasian continent. The area contains the major center of glaciation in this part of the world, and all of the nearby mountain ranges are still being forced upwards by movement of the Indian-Australian tectonic plate pushing northward under the continent.

^{Pamir Knot, Hindu Kush satellite image by Jeff Schmaltz, NASA}

^{Pamir Mountains by Amanov Dmitry, Jun 2014}

Wildlife in the Pamir region is well-adapted for high altitudes, long, cold winters, and short growing seasons. Mountain people use the land for grazing large herds of domesticated sheep and yaks, but grazing space must also be shared with wild sheep, wild yaks, dozens of bird species, over 700,000 insect species, and many large predators. Let’s look at a few of the more notable species.

^{Himalayan vulture, Gyps himalayensis, on Rupin Pass trail by SahanaM, Oct 2018}

^{Himalayan vulture, Gyps himalayensis, by OK-Photography, Getty Images}

The Himalayan vulture, Gyps himalayensis, inhabits the pamirs up to 18,000 feet. These birds easily soar on warm thermal updrafts, but are not capable of long distance flight. They are often found basking in the sun on high, rocky perches. Traveling in large flocks, they follow grazing herds, keeping watch for dead animals. They can be aggressive to most other predators at a kill site, but give way to snow leopards, wolves, and cinereous vultures. The biggest threat to current populations is from drug overdoses of diclofenac, an anti-inflammatory drug that has been heavily used to treat injury in domesticated herds.

^{Herd of Marco Polo sheep in the Tien Shan mountains, by okyela, Getty Images}

^{Marco Polo sheep, taken at Berlin Zoo by Cloudtail, Aug 2018}

The Marco Polo sheep, Ovis ammon polii, is the largest sheep in the world, with large, spiral horns reaching six feet in length, with spans up to five feet across. They feed in the early morning and spend the remainder of the day basking quietly in sunny grassland. Their feet and hooves provide sure footing among sharp ridges and loose scree, and they spend nights sleeping among large boulders for protection. As the climate has warmed, there has been a loss of snowpack, resulting in less available fresh water for drinking and growing thick grasslands. These factors are driving the sheep to lower altitudes where they are more susceptible to predators including gray wolves, red fox, and brown bear.

^{Snow leopard, Panthera uncia, by Irbis1983}

^{Snow leopard, Panthera uncia, by Bernard Landgraf, Jan 2005}

Snow leopards, Panthera uncia, have seen a steady decline with a current population of fewer than 10,000. Their thick fur, gray/white with black rosettes, provides great warmth in colder altitudes, but is prized by poachers, who constitute their main threat. They are solitary animals, active for several brief periods daily, and dependent on healthy populations of ibex and sheep to eat. Powerful legs and furred paws enable them to pursue prey, in any weather, across rocky mountain terrain. After making a kill, they move the carcass to a protected area to eat. At one time, these predators were hardly ever seen, but overgrazing has caused humans to move domesticated animals into areas where snow leopards normally hunt, providing more opportunities for these predators to be killed by protective herdsmen.

^{Wild yak, Bos mutus, by Adarsh Thakuri, Jun 2008}

^{Wild yak, Bos mutus, by the Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica}

Wild yak, Bos mutus, can live in extreme conditions at altitudes up to 20,000 feet. They are large animals standing 6′ tall, weighing 1500 pounds, with black horns spanning six feet. Black, long, fine hair hangs all the way down to their feet, providing warmth for the body and legs. Yaks are very social, forming large herds of several hundred animals. They graze in two groups, with the females typically found about 300′ higher in altitude than the males. Females with young often keep to high, steep slopes where predators, including wolves and bears, are less prone to roam. Wild yaks readily hybridized with domesticated species, resulting in a natural spread of the gene pool.

^{Apollo swallowtail butterfly, Parnassius apollo, by Hectonichus, 2007}

^{Clouded Apollo swallowtail butterfly, Parnassius apollo, by Zeynel Cebeci, Adana Turkey, May 2016}

Butterflies are another common inhabitant of high-altitude mountain regions, particularly from the genus Parnassius, known as the snow Apollo swallowtail family. They are color adapted with dark bodies and wing bases that readily absorb heat from the sun providing a source of quick energy. Their normal ranges are found above 14,000 feet, and they are active for only 2-3 months annually, during the short summer season. Dozens of species have been identified with many having very small populations, numbering only a few hundred individuals. Poaching for collectors remains their main threat.

At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, we have many of these and other species on display in our mountain region diorama. Consider a visit to learn more about the wildlife of high-mountain plateaus worldwide.

^{High-altitude species from around the world on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum include: Marco Polo argali sheep, Alaskan brown bear, bighorn sheep varieties, mountain goat.}

Salamanders

Salamanders are in the order of amphibians named Caudata, which includes mudpuppies, newts, and sirens. There are about 760 species of salamanders worldwide and 121 species are endangered. With the exception of a few in the Amazon basin, they are found only in the northern hemisphere. They live in habitats that provide sufficient humidity levels to keep their skin moist, from sea level to nearly 15,000 feet in altitude.

^{Northern zig-zag salamander, Plethodon dorsalis, by John P Clare, 2016}

^{Marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

The smallest species are lungless salamanders of southern Mexico, growing to an inch in length. The largest species are the Chinese great salamanders, about six feet in length. They are often mistaken for lizards, having smooth or bumpy skin, but can be easily identified by their total lack of scales. All salamanders have a tail which is rounded in terrestrial species but slightly flattened and often crested in aquatic species. Most salamanders are grey, brown, or white, but a few terrestrial species are brightly colored. Cave dwelling salamanders often lack all pigment and appear pinkish-white in daylight.

^{* Western lesser siren, Siren intermedia nettingi, by Peter Paplanus, 2013}

^{Long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicauda longicauda, by Meghan Alessi, Getty Images}

Salamanders, other than cave-dwellers, tend to have well-developed eyes. Research shows they are very attuned to differentiating brightness, but cannot see colors. Their eyes are large and provide nearly 360 degrees of view. Salamanders have no external ears, but can detect vibrations received through their jaw bones. Although some species can emit small squeaks, salamanders have no vocal chords or voice box and do not use vocal communications. Their sense of smell is well-developed and plays an important part in locating prey and mates.

^{* Hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis}
^{alleganiensis, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga, by Alfred Crabtree, 2012}

Salamanders may have functional lungs, non-functioning lungs, or no lungs. All species have the ability to exchange gases directly through their skin and the membranes inside their mouth and throat, but this also requires that the skin remain moist at all times. Terrestrial salamanders depend on moisture found in deep leaf litter, holes in trees in temperate zones, or moisture collected in bromeliads growing on trees in tropical zones.

^{Four-toed salamander, Hemidactylium scutatum,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

Salamanders have three sets of glands located under the skin, covering their entire body. Mucous glands secrete a sticky liquid that is spread over their body keeping the skin from drying out. When salamanders are in the water, the mucous acts as a lubricant, enhancing their swimming ability. A second set, called the granular glands, produce toxins and odors unique to each species that helps to deter predators and attract mates. A third set of glands is a mixture of the first two, doing a little bit of the work of each.

^{Small-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum,}
^{by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

^{Tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum, by John P Clare, 2013}

Salamanders are not as noticeable as many other species. They prefer secrecy and out-of-the-way hiding places. Most species are active at dusk and into the nighttime. All salamanders are carnivorous, feeding on small crustaceans, insects, spiders, and their favorite food – worms. Predators include snakes, lizards, fish, birds, and small mammals. Salamanders defend themselves by exhibiting threatening poses and emitting toxins, many with a bad odor. As a last defense, they may voluntarily lose their tails to a predator, a trait known as autotomy. A new tail can be grown within a few weeks.

Salamanders are easy to care for and their habitats are easily duplicated making them widely distributed in the pet trade and for use in laboratories. Additional conservation impacts come from habitat fragmentation, or habitat degradation, or habitat loss due to draining of wetlands and forest clearing.

^{Northern slimy salamander, Plethodon}
^{glutinosus glutinosus,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus cinereus, by Steve Byland, Getty Images}

In Illinois, we have 20 species of salamanders, pictured throughout this blog. Seventeen are terrestrial and three are aquatic (*). Consider coming to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature museum near you to learn more about salamanders in your area.

Spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, by Louisianatreefarmer, Getty Images
Blue-spotted salamander, Ambystoma laterale, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
Central newt, Notophthalmus viridescens louisianensis, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dusky salamander, Desmognathus fuscus conanti, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
* Mud puppy, Necturus maculosus maculosus, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010
Three-toed salamander, Amphiuma tridactylum, by Peter Paplanus, 2016
Southern two-lined salamander, Eurycea cirrigera, by Peter Paplanus, 2021
Mole salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dark-sided salamander, Eurycea longicauda melanopleura, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010

Butterflies

I recently visited The Butterfly Place in Westford, Massachusetts. It was quite nice to walk through and learn about the various species and habits of these beautiful and lively insects.

Clockwise from upper left, all pictures by Don Arnold: Brown Clipper butterfly, Parthenos sylvia; Giant swallowtail butterfly, Papilio thoas; Julia butterfly, Dryas julia; Monarch butterfly, Danaus plexippus; Malachite butterfly, Siproeta stelenes

Butterflies come in a variety of colors and patterns providing camouflage to hide from potential predators, identifying an individual to potential mates, and/or allowing an insect to absorb heat needed for daily activities. The colors we see can come from colored pigments that reflect light of a specific color or from structural pigments that take on different colors depending on the angle and intensity of reflected light. Structural pigments produce blues, whites, and colors with a metallic sheen. Genes control which pigments appear in each part of their wings to create the multitude of patterns. Variations in just a few genes may determine that a pattern in one species is slightly different in size, shape, or color in another species, or completely different in a third species.

Blue morpho, Morpho peleides, with brown & white pattern vs same colors and slightly different pattern on Owl butterfly, Caligo eurilochus

Butterflies eat by sipping sweet nectar from a variety of flowers. Their tongue, called a proboscis, forms a hollow straw that restricts them to a liquid diet. When not eating, you can observe the proboscis curled up in front of their mouth. When uncurled, it forms a long tube, able to reach deep into a flower to the base where nectar is stored. Watch the video below as this monarch inserts its proboscis into the base of the lantana as it feeds. Many butterflies enjoy juice from fruit, especially as it starts to decompose to a softer, more liquid-like stage.

Rice paper butterfly, Idea leuconoe, probing for nectar

Puddling is another feeding activity where butterflies take in liquid from puddles, wet gravel, sweat, and scat. These are all sources for minerals and salts needed for egg development. Females may find their own puddling sources, but males also engage in this activity, passing along a complex package of sperm, minerals, salt, and other nutrients to females during mating.

Clockwise from upper left, all pictures by Don Arnold: Piano key butterfly, Heliconius melpomene; Rice paper butterfly, Idea leuconoe; Sara butterfly, Heliconius sara; Scarlet swallowtail butterfly, Papilio rumanzovia; Zebra longwing butterfly, Heliconius Charitonia

Butterfly houses are interesting and fun places to observe many of these species and their behaviors up close. We can provide for our native butterflies by learning which plants host caterpillars and which plants provide nectar for adults. Select these plants for your garden, or place potted plants on an outside porch during warmer months. You can provide additional habitat for butterflies and other small insects by mowing less frequently, limiting the use of pesticides in your yard, and leaving small brush piles in your garden.

Midwestern Prairie

Grasslands make up the largest habitat in North America and cover about one-quarter of the Earth’s surface. There are many different types of grasslands, each with its own descriptive name. Prairie, found in North America, is from the French word for “meadow;” steppes, found in Asia, is Russian for “flat, grassy plain;” pampas, found in South America, is from Quechua meaning “flat surface;” and veldt, found in Africa, is from Afrikaans meaning “field.” In all of these areas, grasslands are characterized by flat or gently rolling countryside.

From upper left: The African veldt by Cello8, May 2007; Sunrise on the Mongolian steppes by Nicolas Mirguet, Apr 2011; Pampas grasslands, Uruguay, South America by Guilherme Boettcher, May 2010; Nachusa Grasslands, Lee County, Illinois by Justin Meissen, Jul 2007

Prairies in Illinois were formed by the action of glaciers retreating northward at the end of the last ice age. Massive ice fields compacted the soils and flattened the landscape. Many areas retained much of the melting ice in ponds, creeks, and rivers. These provided much needed moisture to help establish the new flush of vegetation that moved in as the climate warmed.

White River Prairie, Wisconsin by Joshua Mayer, Aug 2016

Several different types of prairies can be found, differentiated by the mixture of grasses and flowering plants, called forbs. We classify prairies as wet, mesic, meaning moderately moist, or dry. The determination is made based on how much water is retained in soil layers, but can be greatly influenced by temperature, rainfall amounts, and fire. Grasses have narrow leaves, can grow in drier environments, and are the dominant plant type in most prairies. Forbs have broad leaves and require more moisture than grasses. Prairie plants often have deep root systems to access water and nutrients.

From upper left: Big Bluestem, Andropogon gerardii by Matt Lavin, Sep 2019; Rattlesnake master, Eryngium yuccifolium by Adam B, Jan 2017; Grey coneflower seed heads, Ratabida pinnata by JanetandPhil, Nov 2010; Frosty Prairie dock, Silphium terebinthinaceum by Anne McCormack, Dec 2010; Indian grass, Sorghastrum nutans by Douglas Mills, Sep 2015

Animals that inhabit midwestern prairies are adapted to this habitat. They are able to find water and food in drier conditions, when water is scarce. They avoid the hazards of fire sweeping across the landscape. They keep warm during cold winter months. They avoid predators in a landscape with few hiding spaces. Many species are able to burrow underground for warmth, to avoid fire, and to escape predators. Others live near the ground in thicker vegetation that provides cover from wind, cold, and attack.

From upper left: American toad, Bufo americanus by Alan Huett, Jul 2008; Sedge wren, Cistothorus platensis by Joshua Mayer, Jul 2015; Thirteen-lined ground squirrel, Spermophilus tridecemlineatus by ChristaR., Nov 2016; Prairie kingsnake, Lampropeltis calligaster by Peter Paplanus, May 2022; Northern harrier, Circus hudsonius by Wendy Miller, Dec 2010

At this time of year, prairie plants are starting to go dormant and many bird species are migrating southward to warmer climates where food and water is abundant. It is a great time to get out and observe plants as they set seed and surprise us with the many hues of autumn. Birds are abundant as flocks fly overhead on their migration. Birds that spend the winter here are searching for areas that will provide seed and cover during the coming cooler months. Other animals are out to gather plants for insulation in their winter dens or seeds to store in their larder. Keep your eyes and ears open as you walk the prairie paths this month.

Midewin tallgrass prairie preserve, Wilmington, IL by CheapShot, Jun 2012

Puffins

Puffins are part of the Alcidae family of seabirds along with murres, guillemots, auklets, murrelets, and 25 recently extinct species. All members of the family can fly and are excellent divers and swimmers. Three species are found in the North Pacific Ocean including the tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata, horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, and rhinoceros auklet, cerorhinca monocerata. The Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, is the only species found in the North Atlantic Ocean.

^{Images clockwise: Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, portrait by stockomotion, Getty Images Signature; Horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, showing horns over eye by webguzs, Getty Images; Tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata, on the water by Bruce Block, Getty Images Signature; Rhinoceros auklet, Cerorhinca monocerata, by nikkigensert, Getty Images}

The rhinoceros auklet was thought to have been misidentified when it was first discovered and named. However, DNA testing has shown that all four puffin species have a common auklet ancestor. Puffin species have short, stocky wings and tails, with darker gray-to-black plumage on top of their heads and backs and lighter whitish-to-brown plumage on their faces and underparts. Their bills change color during breeding seasons to display several stripes of red, orange, yellow, and black.

Tufted puffin, *Fratercula cirrhata*, breeding coloration by MrDaz, Getty Images Signature

Short wings require the birds to beat them quite fast to fly, about 400 beats a minute, but they achieve speeds of 45 to 55 mph in flight. Short wings are used as powerful flippers underwater along with feet used as rudders. Puffins can dive to 200 feet or more catching a dozen or more small fish and invertebrates as they swim through the water. A uniquely designed hinge on their bill allows the top and bottom bill to meet at several different angles so the bird can add more fish without losing its grip on any that are already caught.

^{Images clockwise: Horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, with fish catch in Alaska by Gerald Corsi, Getty Images; Atlantic puffin, Fratercula arctica, with catch by Daniel Jara, Getty Images; Rhinoceros auklet, Cerorhinca monocerata, with seven fish Andrew Reding, Jul 2010}

Puffins spend winters at sea, far from land, floating on the surface or pursuing prey. Breeding season occurs in late spring, and most adult birds come together, forming large colonies containing breeding and non-breeding individuals. Non-breeding birds spend hours each day exhibiting a behavior called wheeling flight – flying figure eights over the cliffs where the colony is located. After finding a mate, puffins form long-term pair bonds. After breeding, pairs may split up when out at sea, but often return the next breeding season to find the same mate and nesting site. Puffins breed in large colonies on coastal cliffs of offshore islands. Only one egg is laid and both parents incubate the egg and feed the chick. Chicks fledge at night, and juveniles spend the first five years out at sea before returning to the breeding colonies.

^{Horned puffin, Fratercula corniculata, nesting on Latrabjarg Cape, Vestfirdir, Iceland by Nikolay Tsuguliev, Getty Images}

^{Atlantic puffin roost by Shankar S., May 2016}

Puffins are not considered endangered, but are starting to encounter trends affecting the continuity of their successful breeding. Warming waters in the oceans are reducing populations of fish that breed and live in cold water areas, that are the favorite prey of the auk family. Threats on the mainland of Iceland, historically one of the largest breeding colonies, include being hunted by mink introduced in the 1930s, so most colonies are now located on offshore islands. Hunting for feathers, eggs, and meat has been sustainable on island ranges for hundreds of years. However, hunting on the American mainland during the late 1800s and early 1900s eradicated the population at one point. In the last 50 years, about 50,000 birds have returned to protected areas in Maine. Their biggest natural predator is the great black-backed gull which dive-bombs and picks off birds near shore during breeding periods.

^{Tufted puffin, Fratercula cirrhata, spreading its wings by TiannaChantal, Getty Images}

Puffins have an average lifespan of over thirty years, spending most of their lives out at sea. Reproduction rates are low with only one chick born each year to a pair of puffins, but a breeding pair may produce twenty chicks in their lifetimes and threats from natural predators are small. Puffins are favorite species in many zoos and some aquariums. Learn more by visiting a local institution or take a virtual tour from a live webcam at: https://explore.org/livecams/puffins/puffin-loafing-ledge-cam.

Ash Trees

In the past, ash trees were one of the more common street trees in many urban areas of the United States. However, with the introduction of the Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, a member of the beetle family native to Asia, our native ash populations have suffered severe losses.

^{Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, by Leah Bauer, USDA FS Northern Research Station, Bugwood.org}

^{Emerald ash borer larva by Oregon Department of Agriculture, Mar 2023}

^{Emerald ash borer damage by John Hritz, Aug 2006}

Ash trees have been a popular “street tree” species for many urban areas. It is estimated that by the late 20th century, 20% of all parkway trees in Chicago were ash species. Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, likes moist soils, but grows well in most conditions. White ash, Fraxinus americana, is very similar to green ash, but prefers well-drained sites. Both have furrowed bark appearing as tight rectangular blocks on young trees, but deepening into longer furrows and ridges resembling a diamond-shaped pattern in mature trees. Black ash, Fraxinus nigra, often found on wet sites, is covered with irregular, knobby bumps. All the barks are grayish-brown.

^{Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, flowers by DonArnold, Aug 2023}

^{Ash tree samara by Herve Breton, Getty Images}

In spring, ash trees grow small green or purple flowers with no petals. Most are wind pollinated, although several bee species collect the pollen and contribute to some seed development. Flowers appear on both male and female trees, but only female trees develop seeds. Seeds are called samaras, or “helicopter seeds,” due to the distinctive whirling pattern they exhibit as they fall off the tree in a lazy spiral to the ground. The seed is housed in a fully rounded shell at one end of the single wing of each samara.

^{Green ash, pinnately compound leaves by Robert H. Mohlenbrock. 1989, USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute (WSI), Lincoln}

Its pinnately compound leaves are another distinctive feature of the ash family. A compound leaf has a leaf blade divided into leaflets that are attached individually to the middle vein, each by its own stalk. The term pinnately refers to the arrangement of leaves, opposite one another along the middle vein. A terminal leaf, grown at the tip of the vein means there are always an odd number of leaflets, from 5 to 9 leaflets in ash species. Buds and branches also grow in this pattern, which can be observed on rose plants, as well as hickory and walnut trees.

^{White ash trees in autumn color by Cathy McCray, Nov 2016}

White ash is the main source of wood used in commercial applications. It is of medium weight and springy, able to absorb a shock and bounce back. This makes it valuable for bats, tennis rackets, bows and arrow shafts, along with a wide variety of other uses including tool handles, boats, and furniture. The seeds provide a valuable food source for several bird species including quail, duck, and turkey.

^{Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, bark by Kerry Woods, Apr 2022}

^{White ash, Fraxinus americana, bark by Virens, Sep 2009}

^{Black ash, Fraxinus nigra , bark by Robert H. Mohlenbrock, 1995, USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute (WSI), Chester}

Although many, many ash trees have been lost to attacks from Emerald ash borers over the past couple decades, a small number of green ash have proven more resistant. They provide great shade for parks, yards, and large areas. In fall, watch as white ash trees turn beautiful shades of gold, deep purple, and maroon. Be sure to make note of them on your walks and check back in a few months to view their spectacular fall displays.

Ferns

Ferns are a group of well-known plants that first developed during the carboniferous period about 350 million years ago when the climate was stable, warm, and wet. Ferns were globally abundant in woodlands and marshlands providing suitable habitat for them.

Ferns were the first group of plants with vascular systems. Vascular plants utilize tube-like structures, called xylem tissue and phloem tissue. Water and minerals are moved from roots to fronds (leaves) through the xylem tissues and are used in photosynthesis to create food that is distributed throughout the rest of the plant in phloem tissues. Vascular systems also provide internal support so these plants can stand upright on their own.

^{Fertile fronds, Christmas fern in Sheipsit State Forest, CT by Holcy, Getty Images}

Early scientists noted that ferns came back every year, but produced no flowers or seeds. In 1669, it was discovered that spores grew on the surface of the fronds, but it was not until the mid-18th century that the entire reproductive process was understood. Spores are one-celled organisms that start to develop in springtime. They appear by the thousands as small green bumps on the undersides of fronds. As summer progresses, the sporangia, a capsule that contains the spore, turns brown. Clumps of these are called sori, and can easily be observed on fern fronds. In late summer, when the sporangia mature, they open and release their spores. Some plants will forcefully shoot their spores away from the fronds and some will open and let the spores drift away, caught by any small breeze.

^{Polystichum richardii in Stanley Park, Akaroa by Jon Sullivan, Aug 2006}

^{Lady fern sporangia by Kerry Woods, Mar 2013}

Most spores will not land in a spot with favorable growing conditions (fertile soil and water), but the spore may remain viable for up to a year, should conditions change. Spores do not contain a small plant like a seed does. A spore starts as a one-celled organism that grows by dividing itself in two during the first phase of reproduction called the gametophyte generation. As this division continues, a small structure called a prothallium grows, getting its nutrients directly from contact with water. Two more structures develop. The archegonium contains an egg, and the antheridium contains sperm. When water is present, the sperm will swim to the egg, fertilize it, and eventually a new, self-supporting plant grows.

^{Crozier shaped fronds by Ray Hems, Getty Images Signature}

The fern develops underground over the winter. In spring, when ground temperatures have risen, fernlets will push tightly coiled fiddleheads through the soil into the open air. A fiddlehead, also called a crozier, is a group of young, coiled fronds (leaves) of a fern. As the fern grows, the upper and lower surfaces of the fronds grow at different rates, and the fiddlehead uncoils, straightening out into several fronds. The plant is entering the second phase of reproduction, known as the sporophyte generation, where spores will be grown on the undersides of the fronds.

^{Green Boston fern frond, Nephrolepsis exaltata by Noppharat05081977 Getty Images}

^{Staghorn fern frond veins by IveehCoombs_Photography, Getty Images}

^{Staghorn ferns by Eyepark, Getty Images}

Ferns can also reproduce through cloning. The walking fern, Asplenium rhizophyllum, grows long fronds that eventually bend over and touch the ground. Wherever a tip touches moist soil, new roots are sent out, and a cloned plant develops. The Boston fern, Nephrolepsis exaltata, grows runners – leafless stems that branch out horizontally. Wherever they come in contact with moist soil, roots are sent out to clone another Boston fern. The staghorn fern, Platycerium sp, grows buds on its roots. As the soil around the plant is moistened by water containing nutrients, a new plant pushes upward through the soil from each bud.

^{Walking fern, Low Tatras mountains, Slovakia by Vrabelpeter1, Getty Images}

Ferns grow well in a variety of habitats. Many species prefer damp woodlands, but some grow on cliff faces or in rocky, dry locations. Be sure to watch for various species of ferns when you are out walking. A good field guide can help with fern identification and provide distinguishing information on this amazing plant group.

Bird Eggs

It is spring in the northern hemisphere, and many birds are claiming territories, finding mates, and establishing nesting sites. Raising new families will take most of the summer and early autumn. As we watch birds who have laid their eggs, it may seem that not much happens until the young hatch, but there is lots of activity taking place.

^{RWBB calling by mirceax from Getty Images}

An ovum, the female reproductive cell, starts its journey to become an egg in the oviduct where it is fertilized by stored sperm from a male and encased in a glob of protein-filled gelatin to form a yolk. Additional proteins, known as the albumin or egg white, are added to nourish the embryo as it grows inside the egg. Calcium carbonate, a mineral added by special cells in the bird’s uterus, encloses the gelatin-like mass of protein and embryo, slowly hardening into the egg’s shell. Egg shells are not completely solid, but are perforated with many minute holes that allow air to reach the developing embryo. Pigmentation is squirted onto the shell adding color and pattern to the outside. A coating of protein determines the outer texture of the egg which may be smooth, glossy, dull, rough, or powdery.

^{Egg collection, Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, Benedictine University, Lisle by DonArnold}

The total number of eggs laid at one time is called a clutch and some bird species lay only one a year, but many species produce two, or more, annually. A consistent number of eggs is found in each clutch, although additional clutches in the same year may contain fewer eggs. Eggs vary widely in size, shape, and color among various bird species. Egg shapes may be determined by the location of the nest. Cavity nesters tend to have rounded eggs, while cliff dweller’s eggs are often oval with a broad end on one side and a pointed end on the other to prevent the egg from rolling very far. Where a clutch has a greater number of eggs, pointed shapes fit into smaller spaces enabling the mother to easily cover them all when sitting on the nest.

^{Nesting female hummingbird by jaypiercestorffphoto}

Incubation is the process of keeping the eggs warm. An adult usually develops a brood patch underneath its belly where feathers and down disappear and blood vessels close to the skin’s surface can warm the area that is in direct contact with the eggs. Incubation periods are consistent in each species, but may be lengthened by abnormal cold spells.

^{Blue robin eggs in nest by Dennis Flarsen, Pixabay}

^{Western bluebird eggs by Summit to Seashore Birding, Sep 2007}

Color is added into the shell material before it hardens. Colors may vary in hue and saturation on individual eggs, and the deepest hues are often found at the largest end. Pigments are chemicals with complex molecular structures that produce color when mixed with water. Birds have two pigments: reddish-brown hues and bluish-green hues. Here are several theories as to why eggs have markings, but exact reasons are not known.

Heavier pigments are often found in birds that lay their eggs in open, exposed environments, and the markings may serve as camouflage. Many cavity nesters lay white eggs, which are well hidden from other birds, predators, and the sun. Some eggs laid in exposed nests may still be brightly colored, but covered by the female most of the time.

^{Quail eggs showing pigmentation by Piyachok from Getty Images}

Darker colors and markings are often found among species that breed in cooler climates. Pigments are known to absorb UV radiation from the sun and not allow it to harm a developing embryo. But, light absorption by an area of pigmentation generates more heat inside the shell, which may also be harmful. Pesticides and other chemicals in the environment can cause thinning of the shell casing, making them more susceptible to breakage. Pigments tend to gather at weaker spots in the shell casing and have been shown to strengthen the shell.

Several aspects of bird egg development are not yet understood, and many theories are under investigation. An interesting question currently under review is whether a bird, or another animal such as a predator, sees different aspects of the light spectrum than humans. If so, what do birds see when they look at an egg? A new bird’s life starts in an egg, a small and wonder-filled package that has been much studied and yet still presents many unanswered questions.

To learn more, consider visiting your local nature museum.

The Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University in Lisle, Illinois, has an extensive egg collection displayed by clutch size and covering almost 200 bird species.

Maple Trees

Maple trees in the northern U.S. are coming into bloom at this time of year. Maples bloom in late winter and early spring, and the flowers come in green, yellow, orange, and red hues. There are about 130 species worldwide, and except for one species, all are found in the northern hemisphere across Asia, Europe, Africa, and North America. Thirteen maple trees are native to North America, and we will take a look at a few of the more common ones.

^{Holland Red Maple Swamp, Wisconsin State Natural Area by Joshua Mayer, May 2012}

Several species are large trees, reaching from 40′ to 65′ in height with 20″ to 60″ diameter trunks. Trunks are dark grayish-brown with ridged bark. Crowns appear generally rounded and root systems are widely spread. Maple trees do well in most habitats, particularly moist to wet soil, along streams or in bottomlands.

^{Sugar maple in spring by J Stephen Conn, Jul 2007}

Sugar maple, Acer saccharum, is well known for its maple syrup, marketed world-wide. When temperatures drop below 40˚, maple trees stop growing and excess starch is stored until temperatures start to rise again. Enzymes in the tree change the starch into sugar which is carried by tree sap flowing through the xylem and phloem cells, located just beneath the bark. A tap gently pounded through the bark intercepts some of the sap and collects it into buckets. It takes 40 gallons of sap to produce one gallon of maple syrup. Historically, the wood was used for railroad rails, plow blades, and wagon wheels. After burning, its ashes are rich in potash and make excellent fertilizer as well as an additive for soap and pottery glazing.

^{Maple tree tapping by PublicDomainPictures , Pixabay}

Black maple, Acer nigrum, is a close relative to the sugar maple, and these two species easily hybridize. Both species are shade tolerant, often found growing together for several years as understory trees. Sap from black maple trees may also be used in maple syrup production. Black and sugar maples are hardwoods, stronger and harder than other maple species, and valued for use as basketball court and bowling alley floors, workbenches, cutting boards, and baseball bats.

^{Bowling alley by vtwinpixel, Getty Images; Maple & other baseball bats by Comstock Images: Maple workbenches from thelinke, Getty Images Signature}

Red maple, Acer rubrum, provides food from seeds, buds, and flowers for squirrels, chipmunks, deer, moose, and elk. In winter, stumps and small twigs are an important food source for rabbits. Pollen is produced early in the spring and is a much needed food source at this time of year for bees and other pollinators. Red maple is also attractive to insects and fungi, which invade the wood and create many open cavities in trunks and large branches, favored as nesting sites for wood ducks and other species.

^{Red maple buds & flowers by Martin LaBar, March 2010}

^{Baby squirrel in maple tree by William Krumpelman, Getty Images}

Red maple has several qualities that have made it a widely used ornamental tree. It grows well in shady sites; it is tolerant of flooding and water-logged soils; it is one of the first to colonize disturbed sites and anchor the soil, and it has a rapid growth rate, colorful flowers and foliage, and lives 75 to 100 years. Maple flavored drinks, such as tea, are made from inner bark scrapings. Bark is also used in the production of ink and black or brown dyes. The wood is used for smoking meat and in the production of some whisky varieties.

Silver maple, Acer saccharinum, is a fast growing tree with a root system attracted to any source of water. It is easily grown in shady areas and wet soils, make it a well-liked ornamental tree. However, it causes many sewer and drain issues in urban settings in its search for water. The wood is hard but very brittle, and branches easily break in heavy winds. This often results in trunks having hollow cavities used for shelter by various animal species including wood ducks and squirrels. Seeds are abundant and are a favorite for birds and small mammals. The sap makes a delicious syrup, but requires twice as much volume as sugar maple trees, making it not commercially viable.

Box elder, Acer negundo, is another maple species that is often found near water. This tree easily tolerates drought and extreme cold, although the wood is weak compared to other maple species, and branches often break when subjected to heavy loads of snow and ice. Box elder produces abundant seeds late in the year that provide a great winter food source for mice, squirrels, and seed-eating birds. Branches are small in diameter, so it is not often used for lumber, but it has several uses as pulp wood for producing crates, boxes, and composite wood panels.

^{Under the spreading maple by Jo Zimny, Oct 2020}

As you are out walking in your area, be sure to look for the many species of maple trees that grow in yards and woodlands, often distinguished by bright flowers, abundant seeds, and lively green foliage. Also, be sure to take the chance to observe their spectacular fall foliage later in the year.