respiration – Discover-Nature

The High Life, animal species

In the last blog, we investigated the conditions and constraints of living at high altitudes, generally above 10,000 feet. A few physiological adaptations listed included enhanced breathing and blood supply to get more oxygen to the body, internal temperature regulation allowing some mammals to adjust to a colder environment, and smaller plants requiring less moisture and having a short growing season.

^{Common springtail, Orchesella cincta, by Mvuijlst, Feb 2009}

^{Springtail, Isotoma caerulea, by Andy Murray, Jul 2014}

The Himalayan jumping spider, Euophrys omnisuperstes, is generally found above 22,000 feet, living among rock crevices and feeding on stray insects blown upward by rising mountain winds. The spider also feeds on springtails, Collembola, once considered an insect but now classified as a free-ranging hexapod. These tiny organisms have antifreeze compounds in their blood, enabling them to live in higher, colder habitats.

Reptiles from four lizard species have been found living in higher elevations. Two species of iguana in the genus Liolaemus live in Bolivia; a third iguana species, Liolaemus tacnae, lives in Peru; and an Asian lizard, Phrynocephalus erythrurus, lives on the Tibetan plateau. All were found between 16,000 feet and 18,000 feet, but very little is known about them since these areas are difficult to access for study.

^{Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos, by Giles Laurent, Dec 2021; Andean condor, Vultur gryphus, by Bastihitzi, May 2013; Alpine chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus, by Jim Higham, 2008}

Birds can be found living near mountain tops year-round. The Alpine chough, Pyrrhocorax graculus, lives in social flocks from the Alps to the Himalayas. Standing 15″ high with a 30″ wingspan, they have black feathers with distinct yellow beaks and red legs. They eat insects and berries in summer, but have become well-adapted to scavenging in winter, especially around ski resorts. The Andean condor, Vultur gryphus, another social bird, roosts on cliffs and outcrops above 16,000 feet. The steep terrain provides additional protection from potential predators. Golden eagles, Aquila chrysaetos, are found world-wide in many habitats. In the mountains, they hunt marmot, hare, and young goats at lower elevations, but nest in eyries, large cliff-hugging nests at higher elevations. With wingspans up to seven feet, they can dive at speeds of up to 150mph over unsuspecting prey.

^{Left top to bottom: Common crane, Grus grus, by Savithri Singh, Feb 2020; Whooper swan,Cygnus cygnus, by KyoichiNarukami, Japan, Jan 2012; Bar-headed goose, Anser indicus, by J.M.Garg, India, Mar 2000; Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture, Gyps rueppellii, by Lip Kee, Kenya, Aug 2008}

High altitude bird species with physiological adaptations for breathing and blood supply include those whose migration routes take them over the world’s highest mountain ranges. Ruppell’s Griffon Vulture, Gyps rueppellii, with an 8-foot wingspan, has been observed at altitudes exceeding 36,000 feet over the Ethiopian Highlands of Central Africa. The common crane, Grus grus, lives across eastern Europe and northern Asia, migrating over the Alps to Africa, India and southern China. The bar-headed goose, Anser indicus, and the whooper swan, Cygnus cygnus, both live in south Asia and migrate over the Alps to central and sub-Arctic Asia to breed.

^{Above: Large-eared pika, Ochotona macrotis,}
^{by Karunakar Rayker, Ladakh India, Feb 2008}

^{Right: Snow leopard, Panthera uncia, by Vassil, Aug 2007}

The heights of the Himalayas support mammals that can concentrate their hemoglobin and allow the blood to carry more oxygen, avoiding issues with hypoxia, a shortage of usable oxygen in the body. Species with this physiological adaptation include large-eared pika, Ochotona macrotis, living above 7,700 feet up to 20,000 feet; wild yak, Bos mutus, which have larger heart and lungs than domesticated yaks; and the snow leopard, Panthera uncia, living above 3,000 feet up to 18,000 feet. The snow leopard has short, heavily furred limbs and a long, heavy tail for use as a blanket. Its large nasal cavity and strong chest allows more oxygen to be taken in with each breath.

^{Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, by Charles J. Sharp, Ethiopia, Dec 2017; Mountain goat, Oreamnos americanus, by Darklich14, Colorado, Aug 2009; Tibetan argali, Ovis ammon, by DonArnold, Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, Mar 2026; Guanaco, Lama guanicoe, by Charles J. Sharp, Chile, Oct 2025; Yellow-rumped leaf-eared mouse, Phyllotis xanthopygus, drawing by Charles Darwin, 1832}

Mountain goats, Oreamnos americanus, can climb steep cliff faces with hooves that grip ledges and rock surfaces in the Rocky Mountains. The yellow-rumped leaf-eared mouse, Phyllotis xanthopygus, feeds on grains, seeds, roots, and insects in the Andean Mountains of Chile, living at altitudes to 22,000 feet. Guanaco, Lama guanicoe, a member of the camel family, lives in the Andes up to 13,000 feet and has about four times as many red blood cells as a human does. The Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, is an endangered species living up to 15,000 feet in central Africa with populations fragmented by pressure from human farming activities. Tibetan argali, Ovis ammon, is a wild sheep found in the Altai Mountains of Mongolia up to 19,000 feet. The ewes and lambs prefer steep, treacherous slopes as protection against predators.

Scientists continue to study species in these habitats to learn more about their specific adaptations and survival abilities in a harsh environment. You can learn more by visiting zoos or nature museums near you to investigate these fascinating species.

Salamanders

Salamanders are in the order of amphibians named Caudata, which includes mudpuppies, newts, and sirens. There are about 760 species of salamanders worldwide and 121 species are endangered. With the exception of a few in the Amazon basin, they are found only in the northern hemisphere. They live in habitats that provide sufficient humidity levels to keep their skin moist, from sea level to nearly 15,000 feet in altitude.

^{Northern zig-zag salamander, Plethodon dorsalis, by John P Clare, 2016}

^{Marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

The smallest species are lungless salamanders of southern Mexico, growing to an inch in length. The largest species are the Chinese great salamanders, about six feet in length. They are often mistaken for lizards, having smooth or bumpy skin, but can be easily identified by their total lack of scales. All salamanders have a tail which is rounded in terrestrial species but slightly flattened and often crested in aquatic species. Most salamanders are grey, brown, or white, but a few terrestrial species are brightly colored. Cave dwelling salamanders often lack all pigment and appear pinkish-white in daylight.

^{* Western lesser siren, Siren intermedia nettingi, by Peter Paplanus, 2013}

^{Long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicauda longicauda, by Meghan Alessi, Getty Images}

Salamanders, other than cave-dwellers, tend to have well-developed eyes. Research shows they are very attuned to differentiating brightness, but cannot see colors. Their eyes are large and provide nearly 360 degrees of view. Salamanders have no external ears, but can detect vibrations received through their jaw bones. Although some species can emit small squeaks, salamanders have no vocal chords or voice box and do not use vocal communications. Their sense of smell is well-developed and plays an important part in locating prey and mates.

^{* Hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis}
^{alleganiensis, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga, by Alfred Crabtree, 2012}

Salamanders may have functional lungs, non-functioning lungs, or no lungs. All species have the ability to exchange gases directly through their skin and the membranes inside their mouth and throat, but this also requires that the skin remain moist at all times. Terrestrial salamanders depend on moisture found in deep leaf litter, holes in trees in temperate zones, or moisture collected in bromeliads growing on trees in tropical zones.

^{Four-toed salamander, Hemidactylium scutatum,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

Salamanders have three sets of glands located under the skin, covering their entire body. Mucous glands secrete a sticky liquid that is spread over their body keeping the skin from drying out. When salamanders are in the water, the mucous acts as a lubricant, enhancing their swimming ability. A second set, called the granular glands, produce toxins and odors unique to each species that helps to deter predators and attract mates. A third set of glands is a mixture of the first two, doing a little bit of the work of each.

^{Small-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum,}
^{by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

^{Tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum, by John P Clare, 2013}

Salamanders are not as noticeable as many other species. They prefer secrecy and out-of-the-way hiding places. Most species are active at dusk and into the nighttime. All salamanders are carnivorous, feeding on small crustaceans, insects, spiders, and their favorite food – worms. Predators include snakes, lizards, fish, birds, and small mammals. Salamanders defend themselves by exhibiting threatening poses and emitting toxins, many with a bad odor. As a last defense, they may voluntarily lose their tails to a predator, a trait known as autotomy. A new tail can be grown within a few weeks.

Salamanders are easy to care for and their habitats are easily duplicated making them widely distributed in the pet trade and for use in laboratories. Additional conservation impacts come from habitat fragmentation, or habitat degradation, or habitat loss due to draining of wetlands and forest clearing.

^{Northern slimy salamander, Plethodon}
^{glutinosus glutinosus,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus cinereus, by Steve Byland, Getty Images}

In Illinois, we have 20 species of salamanders, pictured throughout this blog. Seventeen are terrestrial and three are aquatic (*). Consider coming to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature museum near you to learn more about salamanders in your area.

Spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, by Louisianatreefarmer, Getty Images
Blue-spotted salamander, Ambystoma laterale, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
Central newt, Notophthalmus viridescens louisianensis, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dusky salamander, Desmognathus fuscus conanti, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
* Mud puppy, Necturus maculosus maculosus, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010
Three-toed salamander, Amphiuma tridactylum, by Peter Paplanus, 2016
Southern two-lined salamander, Eurycea cirrigera, by Peter Paplanus, 2021
Mole salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dark-sided salamander, Eurycea longicauda melanopleura, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010

Aquatic Insects

Rivers and streams meander, fall, swirl, pool and flow through landscapes based on how their channel has been shaped and filled. Moving water, referred to as a current, goes in different directions and speeds as it flows. Currents are slower on the water’s surface, sides, and bottom due to friction with air, soil and rock. The fastest current is just below the surface where nothing impedes its progress, and the slowest is where the water pushes in all directions due to obstacles in its path.

^{Woodland stream by John Holmes, Getty Images}

Aquatic insects living in these turbulent waters employ a variety of methods to anchor themselves in place to breathe and eat. Most aquatic insect species are in their larval stage and will leave their aquatic environment when they become adults. Some are benthic species living attached to the bottom; some are swimmers commonly found in slower moving water; some live in the swift-moving current.

^{Water Penny by Cliff White; Stonefly larva by Jim Rathert, Riffle beetle by Cliff White, all images courtesy of Missouri Department of Conservation}

Most insects must be able to securely anchor themselves to breathe and eat. The water penny, a flow-adapted insect, uses its whole body, a flattened oval disc, to adhere itself to a rock using suction. With its smooth back and with no protrusions, water easily flows over and around this species. Where the current flows around rocks on the bottom, an area of quiet water forms just behind each rock. The caddisfly builds a case around itself from rocks, sticks, and mud and remains in this quieter area. Stoneflies and riffle beetles use sharp hooks at the ends of their legs to hang onto the bottom substrate even while walking about in the flowing water. Where water pools and currents slow after a sandbar, mayflies, crane flies, and midges live in burrows in the silty bottom.

^{Pseudiron mayfly by Dave Ostendorf, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

Mosquito larva courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation

^{Damselfly nymph by Cliff White, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

For animals with lungs, muscles expand the lungs pulling in air where oxygen can be absorbed into the blood stream and transported to cells in the body. Insects do not have lungs but use air tubes attached to spiracles, openings on the outside of their bodies that can be opened or closed. A fine network of air tubes allow oxygen to be absorbed directly by each cell. Damselfly, mayfly, and stonefly use gills to extract oxygen from flowing water and pump it into their air tubes. Mosquitos and water scorpions use snorkeling, where a breathing tube connected to a spiracle breaks the water’s surface. Water beetle adults trap a bubble of air under their wing covers when they dive. It is held in place by hairs on their bodies and covers the spiracles located along the sides of the abdomen.

^{Caddisfly larva with pebble case by Jim Rathert, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

^{Caddisfly larva with plant fiber case by Jim Rathert, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

In addition to oxygen, water currents bring a steady supply of food downriver and carry away waste. In forested streams, vegetation and decaying animals falling into the water provide a variety of food. Midges are able to collect tiny particles of plants and animals found in slow-moving water. Some species of stonefly and caddisfly are shredders, feeding on vegetation moving past them by chewing it into small bits. Filter feeders, including black fly and riffle beetles, use nets and fans to trap particles from faster-moving currents.

^{Midge fly larva by Cliff White, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

^{Crane fly larva by Jim Rathert, courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

In areas exposed to lots of sunlight, algae and aquatic insects are the main food sources. Mayfly, caddisfly, and water pennys scrape algae from rocky surfaces. Other species of stonefly and riffle beetles are predators and use their hooked feet to position themselves in steady currents where they are able to snag other species being swept along. Another predator, the alderfly, burrows its bottom into the streambed to catch prey swimming nearby. Damselfly larva may anchor themselves to the bottom or fill a bladder at their rear end with water and expel it with enough force to propel themselves through the current to snag prey.

^{Alderfly larva courtesy Missouri Department of Conservation}

Whether the current is fast or slow, flowing through clear areas or obstacles, streams provide insects with numerous places to live. On you next walk along a waterway, consider all that is happening just below the surface.

Sei Whale

The sei (SAY) whale, Balaenoptera borealis, is the third largest rorqual, a group of large baleen whales that feed by straining food from the water. They live 50 to 70 years and grow up to 60 feet in length, weighing 100,000 pounds. They have bluish-gray backs, creamy bellies, a tall, hooked dorsal fin, and a large mouth with 200-400 baleen plates made of keratin. Their skin is often marked with a series of curvy healed scars made by “cookie-cutter” sharks which attach themselves to large species with suction-cup lips hiding sharp teeth that cut out a section of flesh about two inches in diameter to eat.

There are two types of whales, toothed whales and baleen whales which are considerably larger, but have no teeth. Toothed whales and other cetaceans including dolphins and porpoises, have one blowhole leading to the left nasal passage. Baleen whales have both nasal passages open as two blowholes to accommodate their huge size, allowing a much greater air exchange when surfacing. In all cetaceans, muscles are contracted to open a nasal plug in the blowhole allowing them to breathe. When underwater, the muscles are relaxed, blocking the blowhole and preventing the animal from breathing in water. Air sacs immediately below the blowholes allow for creation of long, loud, low-frequency calls within the hearing range of humans. Most calls last less than one second and sound levels are equivalent to standing next to a jack hammer, carrying long distances underwater.

Sei whales are found in temperate oceans around the world, but not in polar or tropical waters. The southern sub-species population is slightly larger than the northern one, and there is no evidence of interbreeding. Current population estimates place a total of 80,000 individuals world-wide, but sei whales prefer deep ocean waters and rarely come near land making placement of tracking devices and accurate estimates difficult. Tagging has been moderately successful, with many lost signals. It is known that they migrate annually, following the available prey and using prevailing currents to move quickly, but exact migration routes and breeding areas are not yet known.

Sei whale feeding by Allison Henry, NOAA

Sei whales generally travel alone or in small groups of up to six individuals. They are one of the fastest swimmers of all ocean species, attaining speeds up to 35mph for short distances. When feeding, they swim on their sides near the surface with one side of their huge mouths open taking in large amounts of water and straining out prey. Their favorite food is copepods, a tiny planktonic crustacean, but they will also consume krill, squid, and small schooling fish such as anchovies, sardines, and mackerel. They may make shallow dives to pursue schools of fish, quietly sinking below the surface; they can stay underwater for five to twenty minutes. Each whale consumes about 1,000 pounds of food daily.

Sei whale mother & calf, by Christin Khan, NOAA, Jun 2014

Sei whales reach sexual maturity between six and twelve years old, and a young adult is about 45 feet in length. Females are slightly larger than males. Gestation is 11 to 13 months, and each female mates once every two to three years. One calf is born in winter. A newborn is about fifteen feet in length and weighs 1500 pounds at birth. Calves remain with their mother for six to nine months before being weaned off its mother’s milk. Males are polygynous where one male has mating rights with several females.

Sei whales were overhunted in the mid-1960s for meat and oil after blue whale and fin whale populations were decimated in earlier years. They were added to the IUCN Red List as endangered in 1970. Their only natural predator is a pack of orcas. Massive die-offs have been recorded in the last fifty years, and evidence suggests the cause is red tides, a harmful algal bloom that severely depletes oxygen levels in large areas and may last for several weeks or months.

Other threats include entanglement in fishing gear, leading to whales dragging the gear for long distances, ultimately tiring them to a point where feeding and breeding are impossible. Climate change affecting ocean water temperatures and currents is altering prey distribution and availability resulting in less successful foraging. Opening more shipping lanes in polar regions along the edges of sei whale territory, another result of climate change, contributes to more vessel strikes. Shipping also increases ocean noise, making long-range communications for all species more difficult; however, the impacts from this on the sei whale population is not well understood.

The sei whale remains a species with more mystery than knowledge. You can learn more about cetaceans in general from your local natural history museum or come to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University to see a full skeleton of a sei whale on display.

Duck Potato Salad

Walking around a freshwater marsh, we can observe dozens of plants and animals. Daily sunlight provides hours of energy, but it is only usable by the plants, which create their own food in a process called photosynthesis. Plants may be fully submerged, floating, or living above the water’s surface, but all are vital components of the food supply.

^{Marsh panorama by Beyond_Invisible, Getty Images}

Just as animals breathe, plants also need to exchange gases, taking in carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. Plants living in a marsh, where they are fully or partially saturated with water, have developed several strategies for the gas exchange process. Spongy tissue is a universal adaptation of marsh plants. Both stems and leaves contain large airspaces surrounding food producing cells which are well distributed throughout the plant. Airspaces also keep the plants lightweight and enable stems, leaves and flowers to float on or reach above the water’s surface.

Floating wisps of green algae are primitive plants that have been on earth for over two billion years and are the basic food source for all life in the marsh. Millions of microscopic animals, crustaceans, insects, and small fish depend directly on green algae for their food. Green algae lack stems, leaves and flowers, but grow as long chains of nearly identical cells. Some algae are microscopic, some can be easily observed as green strands on or below the water’s surface and some grow to several hundred feet in length.

^{Duckweed forest pond by Sunsju, Aug 2019}

Duckweeds refer to a group of tiny, flowering plants that float on the surface of wetland areas. They reproduce by dividing their cells. This is a rapid process taking from 16 to 48 hours. In optimal growing conditions, with plenty of sunlight and nutrients available, the surface area of a pond can be covered in a very short period of time. Several species of pond plants grow long, narrow leaves with soft, nourishing cells providing a easy-to-eat and tasty treat for marsh dwellers. With large airspaces, these plants are able to stay afloat no matter how long they grow.

^{Spatterdock by Kirill Ignatyev, Jul 2011}

Plants with floating leaves, such as spatterdock, must have a method for preventing excess water from entering leaves and stems when they exchange gases. Plants have stomata, openings in the leaf where gases are exchanged. In terrestrial plants, stomata are located on the undersides of leaves to prevent rain from entering the opening. Floating leaves have stomata on the upper side of the leaf, providing far less exposure to water.

^{Water marigold by Gennady Alexandrov, May 2014}

Water marigold has two types of leaves, one that grows on the stem above the water’s surface and another that grows on the submerged stems. Leaves growing in air take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen through their stomata. Submerged leaves have very thin cell walls and exchange the same gases directly with the water surrounding them.

^{Arrowhead with bulb, -duck potato’, lower right, by Andriy Nekrasov, Getty Images}

Arrowhead is firmly anchored in the bottom of ponds, and has stems, leaves, and flowers growing above the surface. It reproduces by both seeds grown from pollinated flowers and bulbs grown on submerged stems. Bulbs remain submerged, attached to the stem and grow until they are mature enough to anchor themselves in the bottom silt and start another plant. While growing, the bulbs are very tasty and are a favorite food of many duck species, earning the nickname duck potatoes.

^{Wild celery, Vallisneria americana, by Schizoform, Jun 2022}

Wild celery produces both male and female flowers. Female flowers are attached to long stems that float on the water’s surface. Male flowers break off underwater and float to the surface unattached, where they are blown around until they meet a female flower, transferring pollen by contact. The pollinated flower coils downward back under the surface where the seeds develop and are released into the water to start a new plant wherever they land on the silt bottom.

Marsh plants come in many forms and each is well adapted to the unique conditions of the habitat in which they live.