woodland – Discover-Nature

Venomous Snakes Of Illinois

There are 40 snake species native to Illinois, and they are found in all types of habitat from woodlands and prairies to wetlands and urban areas. Of these, four species are venomous. A venomous snake is one that uses a chemical toxin to kill its prey. This internally developed chemical is delivered through a pair of hollow fangs in the upper jaw of the mouth. When the snake opens its mouth, the fangs drop down and venom is injected into the prey as the snake bites. The snake will then release the prey, waiting for the venom to kill it before swallowing the prey whole. Juveniles will inject less venom, but with the same potency as adults.

^{Pit viper Fang and Jaw Structure drawn by M Moran at Encyclopedia Britannica}

Venomous snakes in Illinois are all pit vipers, a sub-family of the Viperidae family of snakes. The pit, a large opening between the eye and the nostril, just above the upper lip, can detect heat given off by warm-blooded prey species. Their elliptically-shaped eyes is another characteristic that helps to identify venomous snakes.

^{Close-up of elliptical eye on Copperhead by Mark Dumont, Jun 2011}

^{Close-up of pit above upper lip on pit vipers, by Scott Ballard, IDNR}

Illinois venomous snakes are non-aggressive in nature, but will bite if cornered, harassed, or stepped on. Bites are usually not fatal in humans, but they can be quite painful, often resulting in swelling and possible infection. Vomiting, nausea, and tissue or nerve damage may also result. Anyone that is bitten should seek immediate medical attention.

^{Eastern Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix, by Peter Paplanus, Aug 2018}

^{Eastern Copperhead close-up, Agkistrodon contortrix, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2021}

The Eastern Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix, lives in the southern third of Illinois on wooded hillsides, river bluffs with sandstone or limestone outcroppings, and along forest edges. During the hot summer months, they may also feed on the abundant rodent populations in meadows or near abandoned buildings. The copperhead is about four feet in length and has a light brown back with one to two dozen reddish-brown colored hourglass-shaped markings along the back. The top of their head is a brighter red-brown.

^{Northern Cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus, by Virginia State Park Service, May 2016}

^{Northern Cottonmouth flashing white, Agkistrodon piscivorus, by Peter Paplanus, Aug 2022}

The Northern Cottonmouth, Agkistrodon piscivorus, resides in far southern parts of Illinois, living in swamps, sloughs, and oxbow lakes. At five feet in length, this heavy-bodied snake is a uniform charcoal or dark olive color, with dark crossbands and a tan to gray belly. When disturbed, its response is to face its attacker and open its mouth widely, displaying the bright white interior, earning the name of cottonmouth.

^{Timber rattlesnake close-up, Crotalus horridus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2023}

^{Timber rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2023}

Timber rattlesnakes, Crotalus horridus, live in both southern and northern areas along the Mississippi River and Illinois River valleys. Usually found in heavy timber with rock outcrops or bluffs, this snake, up to six feet long, is marked by two dozen black crossbars down a gray-green-yellow back. Its belly is light-colored with dark edges, and it shows a dark strip behind each eye. Timber rattlesnakes will hunt in any areas where there is a large rodent population. They are listed as threatened since we have seen sharp declines in the populations in recent years.

^{Massasauga Rattlesnake, Sistrurus catenatus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2021}

^{Massasauga Rattlesnake close-up, Sistrurus catenatus, by Peter Paplanus, Apr 2021}

The Massasauga Rattlesnake, Sistrurus catenatus, is found in small numbers scattered across the state, mainly in prairie wetlands and river floodplains. Listed as endangered in the United States, it has become quite rare in Illinois with only a couple sightings annually for the past several years. Massasaugas are about two feet in length, with a gray to light brown back and 30-40 dark, bow-tie shaped markings. Four to seven darker rings cover the tail. Their main prey is small rodents.

Venomous snakes have small ranges, staying close to home for hunting and mating. Their main predators include humans, birds of prey, and other snakes. Many have been killed by people with an unfounded fear of these creatures. Although they play a major role in controlling rodent populations, there has been little concern shown over loss of habitat due to draining of wetlands and other urban development. Plan a visit to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature center near you to learn more about these mysterious, yet wonderous species.

Sounds of Spring

Thunder and heavy rain, soft rain and light wind, birds in the early morning, frogs in the evening, and maybe a coyote howl deep into the night are some of the sounds of spring. As cold temperatures ease into summer highs, walks through natural areas tend to be filled with many sights as well as opportunities to learn by being quiet and listening closely.

Calls and songs are used by many species for a variety of purposes. Thousands of birds are migrating through the area, especially on clear evenings, and calls help to keep birds together and establish who is the flight leader. Year-round species are re-establishing territories, using calls to warn intruders to stay away or warn family members of approaching threats. Frog species in particular are calling during evenings to find a mate, lay eggs, and begin the establishment of the next generation.

There are dozens of species active at this time of year, and as we have been taking nature walks on campus the last few days, here are some of the wildlife we are listening to (click on each picture to hear their call)…

^{Yellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata, Mirceax, Getty Images}

Yellow-rumped warbler, Setophaga coronata, by Valerie Heemstra, 2024

^{Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, by KenCanning, Getty Images Signature}

Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, by Thomas Ryder Payne, 2022

^{Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum, by Irving A. Gaffney, Getty Images}

Palm warbler, Setophaga palmarum, by Christopher McPherson, 2021

^{Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis, by Carol Hamilton, Getty Images}

Northern waterthrush, Parkesia noveboracensis, by Lance A.M. Benner2017

^{Northern Parula, Setophaga americana, by Neil Bowman, Getty Images}

Northern Parula, Setophaga americana, by Richard E. Webster, 2023

^{Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina, by Irving A. Gaffney, Getty Images}

Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina, by David Tattersley, 2023

^{Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius, Mirceax, Getty Images}

Blue-headed vireo, Vireo solitarius, by Thomas Magarian, 2024

^{Blue Jay, Cyanocitta cristata, by Miguel Opacic, Getty Images}

Blue Jay, Cyanocitta cristata, Sue Riffe, 2024

Bird songs have a structure and rhythm, and are repeated often to attract a mate, ward off rivals, or bond with a family member. Other calls give warning that danger is near, keep flocks together in flight, or create a pair bond, often between mother and chick.

Frogs and toads are mating and laying eggs in area ponds. Each species has its own distinctive call, used by the males to attract a mate, warn of potential danger, establish a territory, or to signal distress. Frog species being heard around campus at this time include the following (click on each picture to hear their call)…

^{American Toad, Anaxyrus americanus, by Mshake, Getty Images}

American Toad, Anaxyrus americanus, by Thomas Margarian, 2024

^{Boreal chorus frog, Pseudacris maculata, by Derwyn, Getty Images}

Boreal chorus frog, Pseudacris maculata, by Thomas Margarian, 2016

^{Spring peeper, Pseudacris crucifer by HuntImages, Getty Images Signature}

Spring peeper, Pseudacris crucifer by Paul Marvin, 2012

^{Northern Leopard Frog, Lithobates pipiens, by Jennifer Seeman, Getty Images}

Northern Leopard Frog, Lithobates pipiens, by Paul Marvin, 2015

Sometimes, coyote can be heard when walking in woodlands around campus late in the evening. There are a lot of different calls used by these canines to provide information to other individuals. You can listen below to a bark used to indicate a threat, a social call establishing an individual’s location, a begging call from a young one, and a howl audible over long distances to announce one’s presence. Other calls may include a woof to signal a low intensity threat, a yip to claim territory, a growl to threaten another animal, and a whine or yelp to show subservience to a more dominant individual.

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, barking by TakenPix, Getty Images}

Coyote, Canis latrans, bark by Paul Marvin, 2018

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, begging, by Keith Szafranski, Getty Images Signature}

Coyote, Canis latrans, begging call by Matthew L. Brady, 2025

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, social interaction by Michel Viard, Getty Images}

Coyote, Canis latrans, social call by Flor Sangermano, 2023

^{Coyote, Canis latrans, howling, by Keith Szafranski, Getty Images Signature}

Coyote, Canis latrans, howl by Paul Marvin, 2012

Additional wildlife sounds can be heard on campus around Lake Benedictine or in nearby forest preserves. Get out for a walk and be sure to listen throughout the day for bird species, and into the evening hours for frogs, toads, and coyotes.

Natives In Bloom

Spring has arrived in northern Illinois with warming temperatures and spring rains. At this time of year, we can observe many of the early ephemerals in bloom. Many of these species only bloom for a short period before the flowers are gone, but the plants continue to grow and put forth fruits and seeds before dying back altogether until next spring. Let’s take a look at what is blooming right now in our area.

^{Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis, by DonArnold, 2025}

^{Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis, colony by DonArnold, 2025}

Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis, is one of the earliest plants to bloom as soon as warmer temperatures stabilize. It is a perennial that grows up to a foot tall. Each leaf unfolds to reveal a single white flower with bright yellow anthers. Each flower blooms for only one to two days, and the entire colony of plants last about two weeks.

^{Sharp-lobed hepatica, Hepatica nobilis acuta, by DonArnold, 2025}

Sharp-lobed hepatica, Hepatica nobilis acuta, a member of the buttercup family, reaches only a few inches in height. Flowers are white, pink, or blue, clustered in tufts of several blooms. They like woodlands and rocky bluffs, and flowers persist for two to three weeks.

^{Celandine poppy, Stylophorum diphyllum, by DonArnold, 2025}

Celandine poppy, Stylophorum diphyllum, is a taller plant between 12″ and 18″ in height. Each stem bursts forth in two to four golden yellow flowers. If cut open, the sap is an orangish-yellow color. After about three weeks, flowers die back and an inch long, ovoid seed capsule grows for several weeks before releasing numerous seeds upon splitting open.

^{Virginia bluebells, Mertensia virginica, by DonArnold, 2021}

Virginia bluebells, Mertensia virginica, stands tall at one to two feet. Pale pink or blue flower buds open to light blue tubular flowers. Blooms last about three weeks and make a dazzling display when plants are observed clustered over a large space in many shaded woodlands throughout the area.

^{Shooting Star, Dodecatheon meadia, by DonArnold, 2025}

Shooting star, Dodecatheon meadia, is a group of 17 subspecies of flowering plants found throughout North America and Siberia. Standing up to 18″ tall, a cluster of eight to twenty purple, pink, or white flowers with yellow stamens hang from the top of each stalk.

^{Spring Beauty, Claytonia virginica, by DonArnold, 2021}

Spring beauty flowers, Claytonia virginica, open on warm, sunny days but remain closed when clouds or cool breezes are present. They bloom for one to two months in late spring and like dappled sunlit areas. White blooms with pink lining give off a pleasant floral scent.

^{White trout lily, Erythronium albidum by DonArnold, 2021}

^{White Trout Lily bloom, Erythronium albidum, by DonArnold, 2021}

White trout lily, Erythronium albidum, grows in large patches of four to six inch high plants with bright white blooms that stand out among dark green leaves mottled with brown markings. The flower nods from a short stalk and blooms for about two weeks in late spring.

^{Cutleaf toothwort, Cardamine concatenata, by DonArnold, 2021}

Cutleaf toothwort, Cardamine concatenata, stands about ten inches tall with large-lobed, toothed leaves. Many small white flowers with yellow anthers bloom above the leaves for about two weeks.

^{Mayapple, Podophyllum peltatum, by DonArnold, 2021}

Mayapple, Podophyllum peltatum, stands up to eighteen inches tall. Infertile plants produce one leaf on a single stalk. Fertile plants have two leaves on petioles branching from the stalk, with a nodding flower growing from the juncture of the petioles. Flowers are pale white with a yellow or greenish middle.

^{Prairie trillium, Trillium recurvatum recurvatum, by Karly Tuminello}

^{Large-flowered trillium, Trillium grandiflorum, by СССР, May 2019}

Trillium grows in prairie and woodland habitats. There are seven recognized species, and two of the ones that you are most likely to observe in our area are large-flowered trillium, Trillium grandiflorum, and prairie trillium, Trillium recurvatum recurvatum. Large-flowered trillium is declining in population, preferring swamps or wet soil areas, which are also declining as development expands and destroys these habitats. Prairie trillium prefers open woodlands dominated by oak, hickory, and maple species. All species of trillium are notable for their structure consisting of three leaves and flowers with three petals.

^{Dutchmans Breeches, Dicentra cucullaria, by DonArnold, 2025}

^{Dutchmans Breeches, Dicentra cucullaria, by DonArnold, 2021}

Dutchman’s breeches, Dicentra cucullaria, stands about six inches tall, with a white flower shaped like a pair of pants hung upside-down from a pedicel. These plants are found in undisturbed woodlands, especially along ledges and ravines throughout Illinois.

^{Eastern redbud, Cercis canadensis, by Greg Hume, Apr 2005}

^{Eastern redbud, Cercis canadensis, buds up close by Greg Hume, Apr 2005}

Eastern redbud, Cercis canadensis, is a small tree or large shrub, growing up to thirty feet high. The bark is dark and smooth, and twigs are slender with a zig-zag appearance. Flowers bloom in mid to late spring and form small, vivid rose-colored bunches.

^{Serviceberry, Amalanchier sp, by DonArnold, 2025}

Amalanchier is a genus that includes about two dozen varieties of small trees or shrubs. These are known by several different common names including shadwood, serviceberry, sugarplum, saskatoon, and others. They bloom for short periods in late spring, displaying clusters of four to twenty white flowers. Small red berries grow in mid to late summer, but do not last long since they are a favorite food source for both birds and small mammals.

Getting out for a walk to your favorite prairie or woodland habitat over the next few weeks will provide the opportunity to observe many of these plants while they are in bloom, including our own woodland trail around Lake Benedictine here at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum.

Salamanders

Salamanders are in the order of amphibians named Caudata, which includes mudpuppies, newts, and sirens. There are about 760 species of salamanders worldwide and 121 species are endangered. With the exception of a few in the Amazon basin, they are found only in the northern hemisphere. They live in habitats that provide sufficient humidity levels to keep their skin moist, from sea level to nearly 15,000 feet in altitude.

^{Northern zig-zag salamander, Plethodon dorsalis, by John P Clare, 2016}

^{Marbled salamander, Ambystoma opacum, by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

The smallest species are lungless salamanders of southern Mexico, growing to an inch in length. The largest species are the Chinese great salamanders, about six feet in length. They are often mistaken for lizards, having smooth or bumpy skin, but can be easily identified by their total lack of scales. All salamanders have a tail which is rounded in terrestrial species but slightly flattened and often crested in aquatic species. Most salamanders are grey, brown, or white, but a few terrestrial species are brightly colored. Cave dwelling salamanders often lack all pigment and appear pinkish-white in daylight.

^{* Western lesser siren, Siren intermedia nettingi, by Peter Paplanus, 2013}

^{Long-tailed salamander, Eurycea longicauda longicauda, by Meghan Alessi, Getty Images}

Salamanders, other than cave-dwellers, tend to have well-developed eyes. Research shows they are very attuned to differentiating brightness, but cannot see colors. Their eyes are large and provide nearly 360 degrees of view. Salamanders have no external ears, but can detect vibrations received through their jaw bones. Although some species can emit small squeaks, salamanders have no vocal chords or voice box and do not use vocal communications. Their sense of smell is well-developed and plays an important part in locating prey and mates.

^{* Hellbender, Cryptobranchus alleganiensis}
^{alleganiensis, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Cave salamander, Eurycea lucifuga, by Alfred Crabtree, 2012}

Salamanders may have functional lungs, non-functioning lungs, or no lungs. All species have the ability to exchange gases directly through their skin and the membranes inside their mouth and throat, but this also requires that the skin remain moist at all times. Terrestrial salamanders depend on moisture found in deep leaf litter, holes in trees in temperate zones, or moisture collected in bromeliads growing on trees in tropical zones.

^{Four-toed salamander, Hemidactylium scutatum,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

Salamanders have three sets of glands located under the skin, covering their entire body. Mucous glands secrete a sticky liquid that is spread over their body keeping the skin from drying out. When salamanders are in the water, the mucous acts as a lubricant, enhancing their swimming ability. A second set, called the granular glands, produce toxins and odors unique to each species that helps to deter predators and attract mates. A third set of glands is a mixture of the first two, doing a little bit of the work of each.

^{Small-mouthed salamander, Ambystoma texanum,}
^{by Jupiterimages, PhotoImages}

^{Tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum, by John P Clare, 2013}

Salamanders are not as noticeable as many other species. They prefer secrecy and out-of-the-way hiding places. Most species are active at dusk and into the nighttime. All salamanders are carnivorous, feeding on small crustaceans, insects, spiders, and their favorite food – worms. Predators include snakes, lizards, fish, birds, and small mammals. Salamanders defend themselves by exhibiting threatening poses and emitting toxins, many with a bad odor. As a last defense, they may voluntarily lose their tails to a predator, a trait known as autotomy. A new tail can be grown within a few weeks.

Salamanders are easy to care for and their habitats are easily duplicated making them widely distributed in the pet trade and for use in laboratories. Additional conservation impacts come from habitat fragmentation, or habitat degradation, or habitat loss due to draining of wetlands and forest clearing.

^{Northern slimy salamander, Plethodon}
^{glutinosus glutinosus,}
^{by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images}

^{Red-backed salamander, Plethodon cinereus cinereus, by Steve Byland, Getty Images}

In Illinois, we have 20 species of salamanders, pictured throughout this blog. Seventeen are terrestrial and three are aquatic (*). Consider coming to the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum or a nature museum near you to learn more about salamanders in your area.

Spotted salamander, Ambystoma maculatum, by Louisianatreefarmer, Getty Images
Blue-spotted salamander, Ambystoma laterale, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
Central newt, Notophthalmus viridescens louisianensis, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dusky salamander, Desmognathus fuscus conanti, by Jason Ondreicka, Getty Images
* Mud puppy, Necturus maculosus maculosus, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010
Three-toed salamander, Amphiuma tridactylum, by Peter Paplanus, 2016
Southern two-lined salamander, Eurycea cirrigera, by Peter Paplanus, 2021
Mole salamander, Ambystoma talpoideum, by Andrew DuBois, 2016
Dark-sided salamander, Eurycea longicauda melanopleura, by Andrew Hoffman, 2010

Illinois Owls

Owls are found year-round in northern Illinois, and they come in several sizes and shapes and live in various habitats. Owls found near urban areas are often active only in the evening or at night, making them elusive to find and observe their behaviors. Native owl species have a highly varied diet, hunting almost every animal smaller than themselves from insects and crustaceans to small mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Some of their unique characteristics and places to find them are highlighted below.

^{Barn Owl, Tyto alba pratincola, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum and Great Horned Owl, Bubo virginianus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

Great Horned Owls, Bubo virginianus, live in every habitat across North America, Central America, and parts of South America. Standing two feet tall with mottled brown and gray feathers, they are well camouflaged during nighttime activities. Their ‘horns’ are actually feather tufts sticking out above their ears, which may enhance hearing and make them easy to identify. Look for them at dawn and dusk in tall trees standing on the edges of open spaces. The Barn Owl, Tyto alba, hides in tree hollows or dense vegetation during the day, coming out to hunt at night. They are a foot tall with a distinct white face and chest and pale brown and gray backs. A high energy lifestyle requires them to eat more than other animals their size. They are mostly found in open fields near wooded areas that provide diverse habitat for prey.

^{Barred Owl, Strix varia by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Northern Saw-whet Owl, Aegolius acadicus by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

Three owls are daytime hunters, but not often found in urban areas. Barred Owls, Strix varia, have small territories, covering no more than a few square miles during their lifetime. They are brownish gray with dark stripes on their bellies. They hunt during both daytime and nighttime and have been known to eat carrion if it’s easily available. Look for them in wetlands with mature woodland cover nearby. Another daytime hunter, the Short-eared Owl, Asio flammeus, is an abundant species standing about a foot tall and known by its brown speckles covering a cream colored undercoat, with a barred tail and wings and a light belly. Their diet is similar to other owl species, but they may also hunt rabbit and weasel. Look for them flying low to the ground in open areas including grasslands, meadows, and wetlands. The Northern Saw-whet Owl, Aegolius acadicus, is only six inches tall, with a round, light colored face and belly streaked with brown, and a brown back with light spots. They are highly maneuverable and can easily hunt in small spaces. These owls have incredibly sharp talons and beaks, and they are able to take down prey larger then themselves. They favor dense, mature forests, especially those containing conifers.

^{Eastern Screech Owl, Megascops aslo, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum; Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum}

The next two species are smaller, nighttime hunters, often found in urban areas. The Eastern Screech Owl, Megascops aslo, stands eight inches tall and is all grey or slightly reddish-tinged. This owl species has also been observed feeding on fruits and berries. They are found in forests, wetlands, and urban neighborhoods with mature trees. The Long-eared Owl, Asio otus, one of the most abundant owl species world-wide, is a foot tall, with black and brown plumage. They hunt by stealth, waiting on a perch for prey to come close, then pouncing. Look for them in urban settings with large trees and in many state park areas.

Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus, by DonArnold, JSNM Museum

A winter only resident, the Snowy Owl, Bubo scandiacus, stands two feet tall with distinctive, almost pure white plumage. They are active both night and day, and can cover large distances in their daily hunts. A large, ferocious hunter, they can take down prey larger than themselves. They are found in a widely diverse set of habitats including open grassland, wetlands, shorelines, and several of our area’s larger airports.

We have many owls on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum. Come in and learn from our newest Illinois In Winter display or our owl and other raptor displays. We are closed for the holiday break, but consider visiting us as we reopen for the Spring semester in early January. Check out our schedule and make a reservation to come see us at https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/.

Illinois Owls

Owls are a type of raptor, a bird of prey with forward-looking eyes, large talons, and hooked beaks. Raptors are known for having the best vision of any animal, and they are skilled hunters found across all habitats. Other raptors include hawks, eagles, falcons, kites, and vultures. There are nineteen owl species native to North America, and eight of them are regularly found in Illinois.

^{Pictures clockwise above: Black Kite by Martine LIU, Getty Images; Golden Eagle by Timu Abasov, Getty Images; Red-tailed Hawk by BrianEKushner, Getty Images; Turkey Vulture by James Opiyo, Getty Images; Peregrine Falcon by Harry Collins, Getty Images Pro}

Owls have large eyes that look forward and provide a wide angle of view. Their binocular vision helps these birds easily spot prey and accurately judge distances when either stationary or in flight. An owl’s eyes cannot move within the eye socket, so the owl must move its entire head, which is capable of rotating 270 degrees to see completely around itself. Their vision is extremely sensitive to light, and they are capable of hunting when conditions are quite dark.

^{Barn Owl face by QuentinJLang, Getty Images}

^{Great-horned Owl looking back by Celine Bisson, Getty Images}

The feathers on their round faces help to direct sound into their ears, which are located on either side of their head. Their ears are small openings covered by feathers that can enhance and separate sound waves, working like binocular vision, allowing the bird to identify how far and in which direction a sound originates. Their enhanced ability to detect movement around themselves, coupled with excellent vision, makes these birds of prey one of the top hunters in their environment.

^{Owl beak closeup by GrahamH, Pixabay; Snowy Owl talons by WWing, Getty Images; Black fur in owl pellet by Justin Smith, Getty Images}

Sharp beaks and talons are used to capture and hold prey, and to easily tear apart meat. All raptors have eight toes ending in a talon, or sharp claw, made of keratin. Owl talons are long and curved and are used to easily grasp a branch or a prey animal. Their beaks are made of bone covered with keratin, with very sharp edges. They have no teeth to chew food, and they eat their prey whole or in large chunks. Whatever is not digestible, including bones, fur, and feathers, is compressed into a wad in the owl’s mouth and spit back out as a pellet. An Investigation of owl pellet contents can reveal the prey the owl is currently eating.

Fringed ends of owl flight feathers by ElvisCZ, Pixabay

Owls have fringed outer edges to their flight feathers that deaden almost all sound made while flying, making it difficult for prey to detect an owl coming for them. An owl’s large, rounded wings and short tail provide great maneuverability while flying. Their excellent vision, hearing, and flight maneuverability allows them to hunt at night in areas with numerous obstacles including woodland and urban areas.

In the next blog, I will take a closer look at the owls in Illinois. At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, we have several displays that highlight the various characteristics of owls and other raptors. We are closing for the holiday break, but consider visiting us as we reopen for the Spring semester in early January. Check out our schedule and make a reservation to come see us at https://ben.edu/campus-links/jurica-suchy-nature-museum/.

Autumn Foods

Meteorological fall began September 1st, marking the beginning of cooling temperatures that lead into winter, the coldest time of the year in the northern hemisphere. As the days begin to cool, many plant species are producing ripe fruits and seeds and starting the process of going dormant until next spring’s warming temperatures and longer days signal a beginning of the next growing cycle. Some animals, especially birds, travel long distances, migrating to areas that stay warm throughout the year. Those who stay through the coldest months depend on having food sources available even while plants are dormant.

_{Grey-headed coneflower seed head by Laura Fischer Photography}

The best winter food sources for wildlife are native plants with berries and seeds available throughout the colder months. Birds including woodpeckers, robins, waxwings, bluebirds, thrushes, chickadees, quail, and thrashers rely on robust insect populations in summer. In winter, when insects are no longer available, having another food source such as seed heads and berries left standing in your garden fulfills this need while adding visual interest and wildlife watching opportunities for you.

^{Food items shown above: Acorns on forest floor by Liz West, Oct 2006; Shellbark hickory nuts by HeikeRau, Getty Images; Pine cones with seeds by GordonImages, Getty Images}

Several tree families including pine, hickory, oak, and cherry offer fruit and nuts lasting through the winter. Along with grass and wildflower stems, trunks and branches also provide habitat for insect eggs and larva that will emerge in the spring. Over winter, insects in these stages are available as food for foraging species that use beaks and claws to dig them out. Stems growing close together provide additional benefits as thickets that provide protection against cold winds and harsh weather and hiding places that are safe from other predators.

^{Berries & Seeds above: Aster seeds by David Hansche, Getty Images; Sunflower at sunset by Hazal Ak, Getty Images; Wild elderberries by StargateChris, Getty Images; Thistle seeds by JTCanada, Getty Images}

Sunflowers, elderberries, and serviceberries are important food sources for fall migrators and winter inhabitants, providing fat and energy to stay warm and active. Aster, thistle, and conifer seeds released throughout the colder months are a favorite food source for finches and other small perching birds. Oak acorns, beechnuts, and hickory nuts are eaten by many woodland animals including squirrel, chipmunk, deer, wild turkey, fox, and quail.

^{Wildlife enjoying an offering: Blue tit on suet by Hedera.Baltica, Dec 2022; Lunch by Audrey, Feb 2008; Pine siskins on thistle by Yooperann, May 2015; Purple finches by Stan Lupo, Oct 2016}

Some of these animals also forage through our backyards in winter as many berry producing plants in the wild are stripped bare during late autumn and early winter. Backyard plantings and feeders provide important supplementary food sources for these animals. A variety of species to consider planting include American persimmon, blackberry, blueberry, elderberry, raspberry, cranberry, paw-paw , and prickly pear cactus, holly, sumac, hackberry, viburnum, hawthorn, bayberry, red cedar, and juniper. You can learn more under Garden For Wildlife on the National Wildlife Federation website at https://www.nwf.org/Garden-for-Wildlife/Food.

Nature journaling is a great way to track your observations and learn more through later research

Opportunities to observe wildlife in your own backyard can be an exciting way to learn. Try tracking which plants are being eaten and at what times during the changing seasons. Record the weather conditions during those periods to learn what foods are relied upon during colder, harsher winter weather. Try a variety of suet, seed and nut varieties in feeders to attract a range of animals to your backyard for fun wildlife watching and education.

Hummingbirds

It is getting to the end of summer, and many bird species that winter in Central and South America will soon be starting their migrations. Of the 320 species of hummingbirds, 15 spend the summer breeding in North America, from the Gulf Coast states to southern Canada, before returning to winter habitat farther south. Only one species, the Ruby-Throated Hummingbird, Archilochus colubris, breeds east of the Mississippi River.

7 of the 15 hummers that breed in North America:
- Anna’s Hummingbird, Calypte anna, by Alan Scmierer-USFWS, Mar 2007
- Black-chinned Hummingbird, Archilobus alexandri, by Paul Crook-USFWS, Jun 2024
- Blue-throated Hummingbird, Lampornis clemenciae, by Alan Schmierer-USFWS, Jun 2024
- Broad-billed Hummingbird, Cynanthus latirostris, by Alan Scmierer-USFWS, Mar 2022
- Buff-bellied Hummingbird, Amazilia yucatanensis, by Alan Scmierer-USFWS, Jan 2010
- Broad-Tailed Hummingbird, Selasphorus platycercus, by Tom Koerner-USFWS, Feb 2024
- Allen’s Hummingbird, Selasphorus sasin, by Wendy Miller-USFWS, Jun 2024

Hummingbirds have a very high metabolism with a normal heart rate of 250 beats per minute that accelerates to almost 1250 beats per minute when in flight. They consume large amounts of nectar each day to get enough sugar to support their energy requirements. Several small grooves running the length of their tongue funnel nectar into their throat by capillary action, a force that causes liquid to rise in a small tube without needing to use air to suck the liquid in. They also eat any small invertebrate to fulfill protein, vitamin, and mineral needs. Hummingbirds snatch insects mid-air while in flight, poach them from spider webs, and glean tiny moth caterpillars from new leaves and branch tips. Another foraging method uses the blast of air beneath their powerful wings to roll over leaves on the forest floor, revealing the insect life below.

^{Anna’s hummingbird catching insects by Stan Lupo, Jul 2023}

Hummingbirds do not bond with a mate. Females establish a territory that optimizes the available nectar and offers multiple nest sites. Males establish a territory based on encountering as many females as possible. Both will defend their areas from other hummingbirds, as well as other nectar feeders including butterflies and bees. Daily feeding starts on the outer edge of their territory to chase out any overnight interlopers and ends with nectar sources deep inside the area’s interior. Males will breed with as many females as possible. Females may have more than one brood of eggs each year, either concurrently or one brood following another.

Nests are about 2″ in diameter, built of small twigs, lined with soft plant material, and covered on the outside with greenish-gray lichens. Nests are bound to branches with spider silk, usually in a forest clearing. The lichens provide camouflage by making the nest appear as a large knot when seen from below. Females reach breeding age at the end of their first year, and can breed throughout their lifetimes. They construct one or more nests, each containing two white eggs, the size of peas, which are incubated by only the female for 14 to 16 days. The male takes no part in raising the young birds, coming together with the female only during mating.

^{Allen’s Hummingbird nest, by Mike’s Birds, Mar 2013}

^{Ruby-throated hummingbird on nest with lichen, by Lorie Shaull, Jul 2020}

Hummingbirds found in the western portions of North America travel overland migration routes. However, midwestern and eastern birds fly non-stop over the Gulf Of Mexico. A hummingbird can increase its fat reserves and double its body weight in the 7 to 10 days prior to the overseas trip. Through studies using banded birds, we have learned that they fly alone, normally at night, along with large flocks of other birds. Young birds, making the trip for the first time, can successfully navigate the migration route with no prior training. Their guidance system, how it works, and how it is learned are all still a mystery.

No hummingbird species are listed as endangered. However, hybridization among species is common, and their small size and great speed make them very difficult to count and track. Little data is available about population size changes and movements; however, more birds have been found over-wintering as far north as the Gulf Coast states of North America.

At the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, we have numerous bird specimens on display, including hummingbirds. We welcome you to come in and learn more about these amazing creatures.

Remaining 8 species that breed in North America:
Calliope Hummingbird, Selasphorus calliope, by Barbara Wheeler-USFWS, Nov 2021
Costa’s Hummingbird, Calypte costae, by Wendy Miller-USFWS, May 2020
Rivoli’s Hummingbird, Eugenes fulgens by Doug Greenberg-USFWS, Aug 2017
Lucifer Hummingbird, Calothorax lucifer, by Jim Gain-USFWS, Mar 2022
Ruby-throated Hummingbird, Archilobus colubris, by Alan Scmierer-USFWS, Jun 2024
Rufous Hummingbird, Selasphorus rufus, USFWS, Jun 2024
Violet-crowned Hummingbird, Amazilia violiceps, by budgora, Mar 2014
White-eared Hummingbird, Basilinna leucotis, by Alan Scmierer-USFWS, Mar 2022

Oak Tree Habitat, pt.3

In the past couple of blogs, we learned that oak trees are a keystone species in their habitat, especially for the vast network of relationships between oaks and insects.

^{Ladybug on oak tree leaf by EMFA16, Getty Images}

^{Leaf litter and under-bark room for rent, by Wayne S. Grazio, Nov 2013}

^{Insect holes & homes on cork oak, Quercus suber, by Bloor4ik, Getty Images}

Oak trees and their surroundings provide shelter and food from leaves, wood, bark, sap, flowers, pollen, and acorns to thousands of species of insects and other invertebrates. Shelter is provided on the tree, inside cavities or other fissures, among the leaf litter, and around the root systems. As oaks age, there are more opportunities for shelter and food, including after branches or the whole tree dies and falls to decay on the forest floor.

^{Chickadee nest by Jack VandenHeuval, Getty Images}

^{Chickadee eating a caterpillar by Bettina Arrigoni, May 2018}

Over 900 caterpillar species have been identified in oak habitats, more than three times the number found in forests dominated by maple trees. Canopy leaves and branches provide shelter and nesting opportunities for dozens of bird species who find a ready source of food within the insect populations. Ninety percent of bird species feed insects, especially caterpillars, to their young. The Carolina Chickadee feeds four to six chicks for 16 days before they fledge. Mealtimes require 400 to 500 caterpillars each day.

^{Aphids and ants by oday222, Getty Images Pro}

^{Philodromus praedatus spiders live mainly in mature oak trees, by Nikk, May 2016}

^{Oak gall by Michael Boubin, Getty Images}

Several species of flies and wasps lay their eggs on oak trees, stimulating a growth hormone in the tree to grow a gall, an outgrowth of bark, around the eggs. When the larvae hatch, secretions from the gall feed the larvae, and the gall provides protection to the developing insects. The abundance of insects attracts other invertebrates from higher up on the food chain. Spiders frequently inhabit mature oak trees hunting and feeding on many of the insect species. Aphid colonies are often found on oak trees, but cause little damage to the tree. Aphids feed on the sap from the tree and secrete a sticky, sugary substance called honeydew, a favorite food for ants. The ants protect the aphid colonies, keeping them underground during inclement weather and herding them up the tree in summer to ensure the aphids are well fed to keep producing more honeydew.

^{Fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, by Anita Gould, Sep 2015; Polyphemus moth caterpillar, Antheraea polyphemus, by Ed Uthman, Sec 2018; Speckled wood caterpillar, Pararge aegeria, by Dean Morley, May 2013; Linden looper caterpillar, Erannis tillaria, by sankax, Jun 2009}

Insects and oak trees have created an environment rich in food for many of its inhabitants. According to Doug Tallamy, a leading entomologist at the University of Delaware, “caterpillars transfer more energy from plants to other animals than any other type of creature.” The loss of habitat for insects puts considerable strain on all other environments, including ones supporting ourselves. Insects do most of the work of pollination, allowing plants to reproduce. They also provide for quick decomposition and the return of nutrients to the soil for growing new plants. Insects are a driving force of the world’s food webs and are necessary for a healthy environment.

There are over 400 species of oaks worldwide, with about one quarter found in North America. As we have briefly touched upon in this series of blogs, oak trees provide opportunities for healthy habitats for many other species. For information and further discussion on the relationships between caterpillars and oak trees, please see The Nature Of Oaks, by Doug Tallamy.

Oak Tree Habitat, pt.2

In the last blog, we discussed oak trees as a keystone species, substantially affecting the types and abundance of other species in their habitat. There are 400-500 species of oaks worldwide, supporting an extraordinary 2,300 wildlife species not including fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. Oak trees in all stages of life and death have numerous biotic relationships with wildlife.

^{Badger in tree cavity by Byrdyak, Getty Images||Golden millipede in Lagos by efeghali, Getty Images||Neanura springtail by Henrik_L, Getty Images||Pileated woodpecker in oak tree by mtruchon, Getty Images||Slug & rollie pollies by Sonya Kate Wilson, Getty Images||Wood Mouse in tree cavity by byjohn, Getty Images}

Fungi are often identified as attacking oak trees, but they can have very beneficial relationships. Fungi growing in the ground assist an oak tree in getting nitrogen, phosphorous, and other nutrients out of the soil, and in return get carbon and energy from the sugars in the tree’s sap. Oaks provide a place to live for over 700 species of lichens, plus uncounted liverworts and mosses. Lichens covering the oak’s surface help to keep them free of fungal infections and invasive insects. Liverworts and mosses help oaks to retain water and release it into the soil over a long period of time. As oak limbs fall and decay, water retention softens the wood providing food and habitat for decomposers.

Green moss on oak tree by tntemerson, Getty Images

Lichen & peat moss on oak by Sean Gardner, Getty Images

Fallen oak leaves are slow to decompose due to their tannin and lignin content, both preservative compounds. Leaf litter, composed of several layers of fallen leaves, becomes habitat for many millions of species including millipedes, springtails, woodlice, slugs, beetles, ants, and other organisms that feed on decaying plants. Through their activities, the creatures of the leaf litter help to return nutrients to the trees.

Oak forest leaf litter by Tina_C_Olsen, Getty Images

Acorns, with high amounts of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, are one of the healthiest and most sought after foods in the woodland. White oaks, living between 200 and 300 years, will produce about 3 million acorns during their lifetime. Many bird species eat acorns, but oak trees enjoy a special relationship with blue jays, whose beaks are strong enough to pry an acorn open. In autumn, blue jays enjoy feeding on acorns, but also cache them for winter, burying several at a time under a few inches of soil in various locations up to a mile from the originating tree. Although blue jays cache large quantities of acorns, they can only remember and retrieve about 25% of them, allowing many new oak trees to grow and spread into new areas.

Blue jay with red oak acorn by mirceaux, Getty Images

Oak trees support 31 mammal species who consume acorns for food, use the tree for shelter, or use the surrounding habitat for hunting. Gray squirrels and red squirrels favor acorns in the autumn and throughout the winter from caches hidden in nearby locations. They remember far more cache locations than blue jays, but there are still uneaten acorns that will germinate in spring to start new trees. Acorns are also a favorite food for badger, deer, wild board, and wood mouse.

^{Gray squirrel eating acorn by viktor2013, Getty Images}

^{Red squirrel with acorn by Neil_Burton, Getty Images}

Oak trees offer shelter for many species. Squirrels often build their nests high up among the leaves that provide protection from weather and predators. Dead branches, especially those with cavities, may remain on the tree for many years, providing excellent roost sites for bats. Open limbs, leafed areas, and cavities all provide nest sites for a variety of birds. In addition, the many insects drawn to oak trees provide a ready source of food for all of these nesters. Humans have been acorn consumers for millennia. Raw acorns, high in tannin content, can be toxic in larger quantities; but, properly prepared, acorns are high in calories, vitamin C, starch, magnesium, calcium, phosphorous, and antioxidants. They have been a food staple in many cultures and can be found in the records of ancient Greeks, Iberians, Japanese, and English.

Oak trees have many direct and indirect relationships with insects, which we will explore in the next blog.

Cicadas

Cicadas are found in habitats with deciduous trees on every continent except Antarctica. There are about 3,000 species worldwide; and 170 make their home in North America, including several species divided into three groups with 13-year or 17-year life cycles, found exclusively in the eastern and central United States. The map below shows where various groups are located.

Cicadas hatch from eggs laid in tree branches. After dropping to the ground and burrowing into the soil, they spend the majority of their lives as a nymph living underground. Using their rostrum, a long, sharp rigid structure that can penetrate the outer layer of tree branches and roots, they feed on the sugar and water flowing through the xylem tissue of the tree. Species classified as annual cicadas actually live from one to nine years, some emerging each summer. They are active for four to six weeks to mate, lay eggs, and then they die.

Look closely to see the rostrum sticking out in front of the nose

Magicicada after emerging from final molt by Karly Tuminello

Cicadas have wide set eyes, short antennae, and large, clear wings with membranes clearly visible. The surfaces of their outer wings are covered by small, blunt, waxy spikes. They are water repellant, keeping the insect dry. These spikes can also break up and kill any potentially harmful bacteria landing on the surface.

^{Magicicada species showing short antennae & clear wings by Karly Tuminello}

Beneath the wings are muscular structures called tymbals which can be flexed creating a sound like banging a drum. The buzzing sound commonly associated with cicadas is a result of rapidly flexing these muscles. Tymbals are found on both sexes, and are used to hear sound as well as produce sound. Males often form large groupings to enhance their sound and attract more females to a single location.

Magicicada waiting for wings to harden after molting by Karly Tuminella

Nymphs start to emerge when underground soil temperatures are above 64⁰F, usually in late May in the northern hemisphere. Males emerge about two weeks before females. After emerging, the nymph will find a suitable perch and molt to reveal a fully winged adult; then spend from one to six days waiting for their wings to harden. Males fly up into nearby deciduous trees to find a suitable mating perch and begin calling to attract a female, which will join the male after her molt is complete. After mating, the female lays about 600 eggs. She cuts 25 to 30 small slits in branches and deposits about 20 eggs in each where they will remain for six to ten weeks before hatching. Both sexes may mate several times with different partners, although most only mate once.

Cicada’s mouth parts are strong enough to pierce tree bark, but they do not bite or sting, although they may pierce human skin if handled roughly. They do not pose any danger to humans and have not been known to carry any harmful disease. They feed on sap, not foliage, so they pose no threat to mature trees. Younger or smaller trees with only a few branches may be overwhelmed by the many slits made by a female laying a full brood of eggs. Lots of slits may cause scarring that could kill smaller branches.

^{Empty cicada husks provide food for many species by Karly Tuminello}

Cicadas and their empty husks do provide food for many predators including birds, fish, mammals, herps, and other insects. The emergence of the periodical cicadas will provide a feast for their predators, whose populations will boom next year before being reduced by less available food over the following several years. One theory for why there are periodical species concludes that cicadas emerging in mass numbers can overwhelm the predators need for food, allowing a great number of cicadas to breed and maintain their own high population. Other theories also exist to explain this natural phenomenon, but whatever the reason, they are harmless insects with a very interesting life cycle for us to observe this year.

Extinct & Endangered

Extinction of a species is the total loss of all individuals of that species. There are many reasons a species may become extinct including natural disaster, climate change, and human related causes. Other species still living in the world may be classified as endangered, those that are close to extinction throughout all of their range, or those making a comeback after being endangered.

A species’ habitat is vital to its existence and includes the environment it lives in and all of its components: shelter, food, water, and more. A species that is moving toward extinction needs its habitat protected and preserved if the population is to survive. How many species are endangered is a hard question to answer because we have not identified all of the species in the world. This blog will take a look at a few species that became extinct in the last century.

^{Heath Hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, @ Delaware Museum of Natural History by Jim, the Photographer, Jul 2013}

^{Heath Hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

The heath hen, Tympanuchus cupido cupido, is an extinct sub-species of the greater prairie chicken. These large birds from the grouse family lived along the east coast of North America from New Hampshire to northern Virginia in forests dominated by pine, grasses, and low shrubs. They were a popular meal for settlers. Poaching and overhunting reduced their numbers drastically, leaving only a small existing population on Martha’s Vineyard by 1870. Further losses resulted from predation by hawks and feral cats. The practice of not of not allowing natural fires to burn resulted in the accumulation of excessive undergrowth, and a 1916 wildfire decimated most of the remaining population. The last few birds died in 1932.

^{Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, @ Field Museum of Natural History by opacity, Mar 2014}

^{Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, @ Redpath Museum of Montreal by Hotel Kaesong, Jun 2020}

The Carolina parakeet, Conuropsis carolinensis, was one of only three parrots native to the United States. They liked old growth forest and swamp habitat along major rivers east of the Rocky Mountains. Parakeets nested in hollow trees and lived in large, noisy flocks of several hundred birds. Clearing forests and draining wetlands for agriculture and development reduced populations as habitat was removed. The last birds disappeared in the early 1900s, possibly from poultry disease.

^{Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, @ Field Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

^{Passenger pigeon, Ectopistes migratorius, @ Cleveland Museum of Natural History by James St. John, Oct 2014}

Passenger pigeons, Ectopistes migratorius, lived in large flocks east of the rocky Mountains in North America and were especially abundant in the Great Lakes area. At one time, their estimated population was five billion. They were fast flyers, able to reach 60 mph and fed on mast, fruits, and invertebrates. Living in large flocks made them easy to hunt, and pigeon meat was good eating. Habitat loss combined with hunting reduced populations slowly in the early 1800s and quickly toward the end of that era. The last bird died in 1914 at the Cincinnati Zoo.

Passenger pigeons played a significant role the development of eastern North American forests. Large flocks roosted together during thunderstorms and at night. Hundreds of birds could be found in one tree, where smaller branches, especially in the forest canopy, would easily snap from the birds’ combined weight. This opened up large holes in the canopy, allowing sunlight to reach the forest floor and promote the growth of sun-loving species such as chestnut, pine, hemlock, and oak species. As flocks migrated from one area to another, forest biodiversity was positively impacted.

^{Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum images by DonArnold, Feb 2024: Carolina parakeet, heath hen, passenger pigeons female & male}

In the next blog, we will learn about endangered species. Many nature museums have information and extinct species to learn from. All of the above species, and more, are on display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum, so please stop by, or visit a local nature museum where you live.

Ash Trees

In the past, ash trees were one of the more common street trees in many urban areas of the United States. However, with the introduction of the Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, a member of the beetle family native to Asia, our native ash populations have suffered severe losses.

^{Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, by Leah Bauer, USDA FS Northern Research Station, Bugwood.org}

^{Emerald ash borer larva by Oregon Department of Agriculture, Mar 2023}

^{Emerald ash borer damage by John Hritz, Aug 2006}

Ash trees have been a popular “street tree” species for many urban areas. It is estimated that by the late 20th century, 20% of all parkway trees in Chicago were ash species. Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, likes moist soils, but grows well in most conditions. White ash, Fraxinus americana, is very similar to green ash, but prefers well-drained sites. Both have furrowed bark appearing as tight rectangular blocks on young trees, but deepening into longer furrows and ridges resembling a diamond-shaped pattern in mature trees. Black ash, Fraxinus nigra, often found on wet sites, is covered with irregular, knobby bumps. All the barks are grayish-brown.

^{Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, flowers by DonArnold, Aug 2023}

^{Ash tree samara by Herve Breton, Getty Images}

In spring, ash trees grow small green or purple flowers with no petals. Most are wind pollinated, although several bee species collect the pollen and contribute to some seed development. Flowers appear on both male and female trees, but only female trees develop seeds. Seeds are called samaras, or “helicopter seeds,” due to the distinctive whirling pattern they exhibit as they fall off the tree in a lazy spiral to the ground. The seed is housed in a fully rounded shell at one end of the single wing of each samara.

^{Green ash, pinnately compound leaves by Robert H. Mohlenbrock. 1989, USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute (WSI), Lincoln}

Its pinnately compound leaves are another distinctive feature of the ash family. A compound leaf has a leaf blade divided into leaflets that are attached individually to the middle vein, each by its own stalk. The term pinnately refers to the arrangement of leaves, opposite one another along the middle vein. A terminal leaf, grown at the tip of the vein means there are always an odd number of leaflets, from 5 to 9 leaflets in ash species. Buds and branches also grow in this pattern, which can be observed on rose plants, as well as hickory and walnut trees.

^{White ash trees in autumn color by Cathy McCray, Nov 2016}

White ash is the main source of wood used in commercial applications. It is of medium weight and springy, able to absorb a shock and bounce back. This makes it valuable for bats, tennis rackets, bows and arrow shafts, along with a wide variety of other uses including tool handles, boats, and furniture. The seeds provide a valuable food source for several bird species including quail, duck, and turkey.

^{Green ash, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, bark by Kerry Woods, Apr 2022}

^{White ash, Fraxinus americana, bark by Virens, Sep 2009}

^{Black ash, Fraxinus nigra , bark by Robert H. Mohlenbrock, 1995, USDA NRCS Wetland Science Institute (WSI), Chester}

Although many, many ash trees have been lost to attacks from Emerald ash borers over the past couple decades, a small number of green ash have proven more resistant. They provide great shade for parks, yards, and large areas. In fall, watch as white ash trees turn beautiful shades of gold, deep purple, and maroon. Be sure to make note of them on your walks and check back in a few months to view their spectacular fall displays.

Summer Berries

Across the northern hemisphere, as spring moves into summer, animals are able to find more food sources. Amelanchier and mulberry trees are two fruit-bearing plants that are favorites of many bird and mammal species, including humans.

^{Amelanchier trees by Leonora Enking, Apr 2010}

^{Mulberry flower by Sueviews, May 2006}

^{Amelanchier grandiflora flower by Kurt Stuber, 2004}

Amelanchier is a genus of 30 species of pome-bearing fruit trees in the family Rosacea. This family includes several other fruit-bearing trees including apples, pears, and plums. The tree is a favorite for landscapers with its many white flowers covering the tree in early spring and its brilliant hues of red and orange in the autumn. Amelanchier can be a single stem or a multi-stemmed plant and will grow in almost any soil type, but the ideal habitat is partly sunny, well-drained areas of open woodland.

Amelanchier are known by many names. Serviceberry comes from the fact that when the plants are in bloom, the ground is thawed enough to hold funeral services. In the Cree Indian language, it is known as saskatoon, a name still commonly used in western North America. Shadblow, in old English, refers to a time when the bloom indicated the shad were running. Juneberry refers to the time of year when the berries ripen.

^{Amelanchier fruit by Oregon State University, Jul 2013; Immature mulberry fruit by Geo Lightspeed7, Apr 2022; Unripe white mulberries by Petru Dimitriu}

Serviceberry fruit is slightly larger than a blueberry and tastes of blueberry, lightly peppered with strawberry and almonds. The berries are light green when young and gradually grow plump and sweet as they ripen to dark red and purple. They are a favorite of many bird species including robins and cedar waxwings in my area. Fruit is rapidly eaten as soon as it starts to darken, and almost none is left to fully ripen unless the tree is covered with netting.

^{Cardinal eating mulberry by Carolyn Lehrke, Jun 2015}

^{Robin and mulberries by Zone~V, Jan 2016}

Mulberry trees, of the genus Morus, have 64 species worldwide, and are another important summer food source. Red mulberry, Morus rubra, is the only one native to the United States. White mulberry, Morus alba, is native to South Asia but can be found on many continents, and it is considered an invasive in parts of Brazil and the U.S. All species grow quickly when they are young, reaching heights of nearly 80 feet.

Mulberry trees can be easily grown from either seed or a plant cutting. The market for their fruit is worldwide with some places, such as the U.S., importing millions of pounds each year. While easy to grow, establishing a viable crop for market has many difficulties. Trees do not produce fruit for the first ten years, and their highest yields are when the trees are 30-80 years old. The fruit is a favorite of many bird and mammal species, and is often eaten well before it is ripe enough to pick. Leading producers are Turkey and Iran who have been growing mulberries for several centuries.

^{Pick your own mulberry by Katarina, May 2014}

^{Mulberry cobbler by Eden, Janine and Jim, Jun 2021}

^{Mulberry jam by Amanda Slater, Jul 2021}

Plump, juicy, and sweet berries from both plants are high in vitamin C and iron. Fruits can be eaten straight from the trees or used in a variety of recipes. Other parts of these plants contain a milky sap that is mildly toxic to animals and humans if ingested. The wood is hard, tight-grained and heavy, with many of the same qualities as oak. It is used in furniture and fence posts. Historically, it has been used for arrow shafts and body armor. Amelanchier leaves and bark may be dangerous to cattle, sheep, and goats if consumed in large quantities. The white mulberry, Morus alba, is an important tree for the silk industry. The leaves of this species are the only food source for the silkworm, Bombyx mori; its cocoons are used to produce silk.

^{Silkworm, Bombyx mori, on Morus alba by Gorkaazk}

As you walk woodland areas near your home, watch for berry-loaded trees in your neighborhood. Keep track of each time you see them and what stage the berries are in – and how many are left on the tree. See if you can observe and learn more about who is eating this sweet, juicy food source of summer.

Ferns

Ferns are a group of well-known plants that first developed during the carboniferous period about 350 million years ago when the climate was stable, warm, and wet. Ferns were globally abundant in woodlands and marshlands providing suitable habitat for them.

Ferns were the first group of plants with vascular systems. Vascular plants utilize tube-like structures, called xylem tissue and phloem tissue. Water and minerals are moved from roots to fronds (leaves) through the xylem tissues and are used in photosynthesis to create food that is distributed throughout the rest of the plant in phloem tissues. Vascular systems also provide internal support so these plants can stand upright on their own.

^{Fertile fronds, Christmas fern in Sheipsit State Forest, CT by Holcy, Getty Images}

Early scientists noted that ferns came back every year, but produced no flowers or seeds. In 1669, it was discovered that spores grew on the surface of the fronds, but it was not until the mid-18th century that the entire reproductive process was understood. Spores are one-celled organisms that start to develop in springtime. They appear by the thousands as small green bumps on the undersides of fronds. As summer progresses, the sporangia, a capsule that contains the spore, turns brown. Clumps of these are called sori, and can easily be observed on fern fronds. In late summer, when the sporangia mature, they open and release their spores. Some plants will forcefully shoot their spores away from the fronds and some will open and let the spores drift away, caught by any small breeze.

^{Polystichum richardii in Stanley Park, Akaroa by Jon Sullivan, Aug 2006}

^{Lady fern sporangia by Kerry Woods, Mar 2013}

Most spores will not land in a spot with favorable growing conditions (fertile soil and water), but the spore may remain viable for up to a year, should conditions change. Spores do not contain a small plant like a seed does. A spore starts as a one-celled organism that grows by dividing itself in two during the first phase of reproduction called the gametophyte generation. As this division continues, a small structure called a prothallium grows, getting its nutrients directly from contact with water. Two more structures develop. The archegonium contains an egg, and the antheridium contains sperm. When water is present, the sperm will swim to the egg, fertilize it, and eventually a new, self-supporting plant grows.

^{Crozier shaped fronds by Ray Hems, Getty Images Signature}

The fern develops underground over the winter. In spring, when ground temperatures have risen, fernlets will push tightly coiled fiddleheads through the soil into the open air. A fiddlehead, also called a crozier, is a group of young, coiled fronds (leaves) of a fern. As the fern grows, the upper and lower surfaces of the fronds grow at different rates, and the fiddlehead uncoils, straightening out into several fronds. The plant is entering the second phase of reproduction, known as the sporophyte generation, where spores will be grown on the undersides of the fronds.

^{Green Boston fern frond, Nephrolepsis exaltata by Noppharat05081977 Getty Images}

^{Staghorn fern frond veins by IveehCoombs_Photography, Getty Images}

^{Staghorn ferns by Eyepark, Getty Images}

Ferns can also reproduce through cloning. The walking fern, Asplenium rhizophyllum, grows long fronds that eventually bend over and touch the ground. Wherever a tip touches moist soil, new roots are sent out, and a cloned plant develops. The Boston fern, Nephrolepsis exaltata, grows runners – leafless stems that branch out horizontally. Wherever they come in contact with moist soil, roots are sent out to clone another Boston fern. The staghorn fern, Platycerium sp, grows buds on its roots. As the soil around the plant is moistened by water containing nutrients, a new plant pushes upward through the soil from each bud.

^{Walking fern, Low Tatras mountains, Slovakia by Vrabelpeter1, Getty Images}

Ferns grow well in a variety of habitats. Many species prefer damp woodlands, but some grow on cliff faces or in rocky, dry locations. Be sure to watch for various species of ferns when you are out walking. A good field guide can help with fern identification and provide distinguishing information on this amazing plant group.

Nuthatches

In northern Illinois, it is still winter, and we have enjoyed watching various birds at our backyard feeders, including nuthatches. There are four species native to North America and about two dozen more found world-wide. Taxonomists have moved several species back & forth between genera in recent years, making the exact number of species vary from time to time. The name is from an English reference to the behavior of wedging a nut into a crevice and pecking at it until the inner portion is hatched and can be eaten.

White-breasted nuthatch, Sitta carolinensis by Mdf, Dec 2005; Pygmy nuthatch, Sitta pygmaea by Len Blumin, Mar 2006; Brown-headed nuthatch, Sitta pusilla by Anne Davis, Nov 2013; Red-breasted nuthatch, Sitta canadensis by Katie Herr, Dec 2013

Nuthatches have short tails and legs, compact wings, powerful bills, and strong claws. Nuthatch species have similar markings including varying hues of grayish-blue wings, black caps, a white throat, and light colored white-buff-reddish bellies. In most species, a dark eye-stripe and white cheeks frame each side of the face. Males and females are hard to distinguish, although males may have darker hues on their bellies.

White-breasted nuthatches, Sitta carolinensis, stand 5″ tall with a white face completely surrounding the eyes. They range from southern Canada to Mexico. Red-breasted nuthatches, Sitta canadensis, have a white face and neck and range from southern Canada to the central U.S. Brown-headed nuthatches, Sitta pusilla, have a white belly and cheeks with a white spot at the nape of the neck. They are found in the pine forests of the southeast U.S. Pygmy nuthatches, Sitta pygmaea, characterized by a white spot under their eyes, are found west of the Rocky Mountains from British Columbia to central Mexico.

White-breasted nuthatch, Sitta carolinensis, heading down by Sarunas Burdulis, Feb 2021
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by Aidan Place, May 2020

Nuthatches are the only birds that can walk head first down a tree trunk, allowing them to forage up or down a tree trunk, seeing insects in crevices missed going the other way. They are comfortable eating while hanging upside down, as are woodpeckers; however, the nuthatch does not use its tail for support relying solely on the strength of its feet. They eat insects and invertebrates when available, but will readily feed on seeds, peanut butter, and suet in colder periods. Food items are often cached in crevices in trees and then covered by lichen or bits of bark.

Brown-headed nuthatch, Sitta pusilla by Shawn Taylor, Mar 2020
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by PT Xiao, May 2022

Nuthatches prefer open woodlands near sea level in temperate climates. In warmer southern regions, they live at slightly higher elevations. They use abandoned woodpecker holes or natural cavities in trees for nesting. Inside, they build a small cup from twigs, lined with soft material for their eggs. Entrances may be protected in a variety of ways. Red-breasted nuthatches collect pine resin to line the rim of the nest hole and avoid it themselves by diving straight into the hole. White-breasted nuthatches often crush blister beetles and rub the remains around the rim, using the foul smell to deter potential predators.

Red-breasted nuthatch, Sitta canadensis by Walter Siegmund, Jul 2008
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by Matthew L. Brady, Jan 2023

Nuthatches are one of only a few animals that use tools. A small piece of bark is often used by red-breasted nuthatches to apply resin to the nest entrance. Bark splinters are also used by brown-headed nuthatches to pry up bark on tree trunks and extract the insects underneath. If the tool performs well, the bird will carry it from place to place. Pygmy nuthatches live in large, extended family groups with other relatives often helping to care for younger birds. They nest in large family groups, huddling together for warmth on cold nights. Red-breasted nuthatch irruptions are common in the central U.S. when the weather turns harsh in Canadian boreal forests, making it difficult to find enough food.

Pygmy nuthatch, Sitta pygmaea by Becky Matsubara, Aug 2019
Click > below to listen to the song recorded by Ron Overholtz, Jan 2019

Nuthatches are a favorite species at backyard bird feeders. They will turn up daily for seeds, nuts, peanut butter, and suet, and are entertaining as they flit in and out, taking food items away to cache in nearby trees or other crevices.

Listen to additional calls and songs for each species at the following sites: White-breasted nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-carolinensis Red-breasted nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-canadensis Brown-headed nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-pusilla Pygmy nuthatch: https://xeno-canto.org/species/Sitta-pygmaea

Sloths

Sloth, a word used in English for over 400 years to mean slow, was used in the 17th century to name six species of slow-moving mammals native to the tropical rainforests of Central America and northern South America. Those in the genus Choloepus have two toes on their forelimbs and include Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, and Hoffman’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni. In a second genus, Bradypus, they have three toes on their forelimbs and include the pygmy three-toed sloth, Bradypus pygmaeus, the maned sloth, Bradypus torquatus, the pale-throated sloth, Bradypus tridactylus, and the brown-throated sloth, Bradypus variegatus.

^{Hoffmann’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus hoffmanni, by Leyo, Jul 2008}

^{Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, at London Zoo by Dick Culbert, Nov 2007}

Sloths are 24″ to 30″ in length, weighing 8-17 pounds. They have rounded heads with tiny ears, and their forelimbs are almost twice as long as their hind limbs. Three-toed species have a small, stubby tail. Limbs are adapted for hanging and grasping, while strong claws help to support the weight of the animal. About half their body weight is from the undigested food in their stomach, which is constantly filled. Sloths have an unusual number of vertebrae in their necks, either six or nine compared to most mammal species that have seven. This allows them to almost look backwards, being able to turn through a 270˚ arc.

^{The most common sloth is the Brown-throated sloth, Bradypus variegatus, shown here in its native habitat at Cahuita National Park in southeast Costa Rica… by Christian Mehlführer, Feb 2007}

Everything about the sloth is slow: their daily routine, their feeding, their movements, and their metabolism. They are nocturnal, eating at night and spending most of the day hanging motionless, while sleeping. Their low-energy, leaf-based diet supports a slow-paced lifestyle. Sloths are primarily folivores, feeding on leaves and fruit of several tree species. They have a multi-chambered stomach with symbiotic bacteria to help digest fibrous vegetation in a slow process that can take several weeks to fully process a single meal.

^{Pale-throated sloth, Bradypus tridactylus, by Fernando Flores, Apr 2013}

^{Pygmy three-toed sloth, Bradypus pygmaeus, by Bernal Saborio, Jan 2017}

Sloths move very slowly, even when threatened, averaging just 13′ a minute. They rarely leave their arboreal habitat, except to defecate. This happens only once every eight days, when they go down to the ground. They are extremely awkward and exposed during these short periods. However, sloths are agile swimmers and often use this ability to move between locations. Having a low metabolism allows them to hold their breath underwater for up to 40 minutes. Slow movements also provide protection from predators that hunt by sight, looking for movement among the trees, including ocelots, jaguars, and harpy eagles.

^{Observe the tint of the green algae in the hair of this three-toed sloth, genus Bradypus, by HenryAlien, Aug 2008}

Sloths have long, shaggy hair that is home to a host of other organisms. Each strand is grooved, able to retain rain water, and hosts a symbiotic green algae. The algae gets shelter and water from the hair and provides nutrients to its host by absorption through the sloth’s skin. The algae is also a source of food for several other species including mosquitos, ticks, mites, beetles, and several moth species whose entire lifecycle depends on sloths. When a sloth goes down to the forest floor to defecate, female moths lay their eggs in the dung. Moth larvae feed and pupate in the dung, leaving several months later to fly up into the trees to find a mate in the sloth’s hair and begin a new cycle of life.

^{It is easy to imagine the grasping and defensive possibilities presented by these claws of Linnaeus’s two-toed sloth, Choloepus didactylus, by Andy, Dec 2018}

Sloths have several predators, but their long, sharp claws make formidable weapons if they are attacked. However, their biggest threats come from poaching, deforestation, and electric wires as more forest acreage is being opened to development. Habitat destruction is a serious threat to the world’s rainforests, and supporting efforts to slow down or stop this process provides the best assistance for sloths and other rainforest species. You can observe these unique and interesting animals at many zoos, or learn more at your local natural history museum, including the South American display at the Jurica-Suchy Nature Museum at Benedictine University.