Author: Don

Hi, I'm Don, a woodland steward, certified burn boss, University of Illinois Extension Master Naturalist, and Certified Interpretive Guide. I enjoy hiking, nature photography, wildlife observation, and model railroading

Autumn Leaves

Autumn officially began just a few short weeks ago, but we are already able to observe the changing colors and leaf fall in the woods.  There is much about nature that we can appreciate at this time of year, with observation and a little help from books, blogs and research.

Hackberry, Celtis occidentalis by DonArnold

Leaves on trees produce food for the rest of the tree.  They do this by a process called photosynthesis which combines carbon dioxide, water, pigments and energy to create sugars and oxygen.  The sugars are used to feed the rest of the tree.  The oxygen is a by-product that is released into the surrounding atmosphere.  The various pigments include chlorophylls, which allow a plant to absorb energy from light; carotenoids, which also assist in energy absorption; and xanthophylls, which protect the photosynthesis process from the toxic elements of light.  All of these pigments give leaves certain colors.  During spring and summer, chlorophylls are present in the highest concentrations, and they give leaves their green color.  In autumn and winter, as the number of hours of light per day gets shorter, the photosynthesis process slows down and finally ceases.  The amount of chlorophyll decreases and color from the other pigments starts to show through.  Carotenoids are orange and yellow, while xanthophylls are yellow and brown.  Another pigment that is only present when there is more sugar being produced than used by the plant is anthocyanin, and it colors the leaves red and purple.

Colors in autumn may be brilliant in some years, or more muted in other years.  This intensity is determined by the weather conditions during late summer and autumn.  Carotenoids and xanthophylls are always present in the leaves during food production season.  Dry periods in late summer reduce the amount of sugar being produced.  Thus, the red and purple hues from anthocyanin may be muted or not present at all, allowing more of the orange, yellow, and brown pigments to be displayed.  Colors may be more muted with less moisture in the leaves and the length of time the leaves remain on the tree may be shortened.  

White Ash, Fraxinus americana, by DonArnold

Color is also affected by temperature.  When days are warm and sunny, leaves produce a lot of sugar.  At night, in cooler weather, leaf veins constrict and limit the amount of sugar flowing to the rest of the plant, thus creating an excess of sugar remaining in the leaves each day.  This is when we see lots of red and purple hues from anthocyanins displayed.

While leaves are falling, trees are preparing for spring in other ways.  During senescence, that time of year when leaves grow old, carbohydrates, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous and potassium are reabsorbed by the tree in great quantities from the leaves.  None of these elements are lost, but they are stored in twig, stem and root tissues.   They will be used in springtime to fuel the beginning of the next year’s growth. 

Another way for a tree to get a head start on next year comes from bud growth.  Buds are formed in late summer or early fall, and are covered with modified leaves called bud scales.  These will seal them against the cold and wet weather of winter.  Most of the buds that you can observe are leaf buds containing tightly packed, immature leaves.  In spring, when the weather gets warm enough for sap to start flowing, these buds will unfold into the first leaves of spring.  Larger size buds may be flower buds, depending on the species and age of the tree.  Flower buds do not change much in the winter months, but they will grow a bit larger as we get near bud burst in spring.  You may also observe terminal buds, found at the ends of branches.  Oak trees, as well as other species, add length to existing branches when these buds begin their spring growth. 

There are numerous good field guides about trees available, but I would like to mention four  that I use.  “Winter Tree Finder” by May Thielgaard Watts and Tom Watts instructs you in how to look at a twig and its structures.  Then the book guides you through an examination of a twig to identify the genus and species of deciduous trees in winter.  “Trees of Illinois” by Linda Kershaw is another book organized using keys with excellent pictures of leaves, buds and fruit for each species, along with ranges and characteristics of each.  “The Tree Identification Book” by George W.D. Symonds provides a wide variety of black and white photographs for every part of a tree including thorns, leaves, flowers, fruit, twigs, buds, bark and needles.   Peterson Field Guides presents “Ecology of Eastern Forests,” with chapters describing the plants and animals encountered in different types of forests, and how they all function together.  Other chapters talk about how forest patterns change with the various seasons. 

Moon Phases

The Full Harvest Moon occurred last night at 6:31pm, but you can still observe it for the next couple of days.  The moon takes 29.53 days to complete one full orbit around the earth.  During that time it passes through eight phases, each lasting a little less than 4 days.  A phase is determined by where each of three bodies are positioned: the sun, the moon, and the earth.  The angle of the moon from each of the other two determines what phase of the moon we will see.  What we see of the moon is due to sunlight reflected from the surface of the moon back to the earth.

Moon, Smokies National Park by DonArnold

The moon does not rotate as it proceeds along its orbit around the earth, so we are always looking at the same side of the moon.  There is an excellent presentation of how the phases of the moon are seen from earth provided at: https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/moon/location.html.  The phases include:

  1. New Moon:  the moon is between the earth and the sun, so no light is reflected back to the earth and the moon is not visible. 
  2. The Waxing Crescent is visible as the moon moves eastward and an observer starts to see a small slice of the moon’s surface.  As the visible crescent grows larger each night, it is called waxing which means to increase gradually.
  3. First Quarter is when the moon is one-quarter of the way around its orbit.
  4. The Waxing Gibbous Moon is more than half full but not totally full.
  5. The Full Moon shows us the completely lit side that faces the earth
  6. The Waning Gibbous Moon is still more than half lit, but waning refers to a gradual decrease in the visible side.
  7. The Third Quarter Moon is when the moon is three-quarters of the way around, now located on the other side of the night sky.
  8. The Waning Crescent phase shows the remaining small slice of the moon before it once again moves to a New Moon and the lighted surface is no longer visible to an observer.

As you can see from the presentation on the web site above, the moon’s orbit is elliptical, but sometimes it is closer to earth, sometimes farther.  The path that it follows is called the Metonic Cycle, and it is repeated every 19 years.  It was discovered in 432 B.C. by the Greek astronomer, Meton of Athens.  Due to slight variations in the moon’s travel as well as the slowing rotation of the earth, the cycle may be off by 1 day in some 19-year periods and then return to the same day in other periods.

When there are two full moons in a month, we call the second one a Blue Moon.  Blue Moons occur once every two to three years.  This month, the Blue Moon will appear on Halloween night, an occurrence that will not happen again for another 19 years.  The exact time of the Blue Moon will be October 31, 2020 at 9:49 am.

Moonscape, Aug95 by DonArnold

Folklore from Native Americans, settlers, and indigenous people of western Europe has introduced many other names for each of the monthly full moons throughout the calendar year:

  • January – Wolf Moon: Native Americans believe that wolves hunt around villages on cold winter nights and howl at the full moon.
  • February – Snow Moon: This marks the month of the heaviest snowfalls.
  • March – Worm Moon: As the ground thaws, earthworm start to appear.  Settlers colonizing early U.S. areas also call this the Lenten Moon, marking the last full moon of winter.
  • April – Pink Moon: Spring rains bring wildflowers into bloom including an herb called ‘moss pink’ or ‘wild ground phlox,’ Phlox subulata.
  • May – Flower Moon: It marks the spring time bloom.
  • June – Strawberry Moon: Strawberries are only ripe for a short period at this time of year.
  • July – Buck Moon: It marks when antlers covered in velvet are first seen on mature bucks.
  • August – Red Moon: Due to the haze caused by high humidity, the moon takes on a red tinge.
  • September – Harvest Moon: The full moon that occurs closest to the autumnal equinox when the sun’s trajectory crosses the equator and nights become longer than days.
  • October – Hunter’s Moon: Now is the time for hunting fattened deer for winter stores.  Hunter’s Moon is an important feast day for Native Americans and most of western Europe.
  • November – Beaver Moon: It marks the time to set traps for beaver, before winter freezes all of the waterways.
  • December – Long Night’s Moon: At this time of year, the moon has the longest and highest trajectory above the horizon.

All solar bodies including stars, planets and moons have gravity.  Gravity extends outward from every solar body for some distance depending on the mass of each solar body and how far two bodies are apart.  The moon’s gravity pulls at everything on the earth, effectively stretching the earth toward the moon and squashing the earth at right angles to the moon.

As water is also pulled and squashed, a bulge in the world’s oceans develops on the side of the earth facing the moon as well as on the opposite side.  The earth rotates under each bulge, and high tide occurs as the bulge passes over a shoreline.  Thus, there are two high tides each day.

As the earth rotates under the oceans, friction with the water slows down the earth’s rotation a fraction of a second each century.  This does not really affect us, but in 100 million years, a day will last 30 minutes longer.  At the same time, the moon’s orbital speed is increasing a fractional amount.  In that same 100 million years, the moon will spiral ever farther from the earth, and it will be an average of 3000 kilometers (1864 miles) farther away from the earth.  As we look into the past, these same effects have been present since the moon was created some 4.5 billion years ago. 

An example of the effect this friction has had on earth and the moon comes from a study of coral reefs.  A coral reef is made up of millions of tiny animals called polyps.  Each day, polyps deposit a layer of calcium to a coral reef.  Scientists have been able to count the layers of calcium to determine the age of a reef, including fossilized coral from the Devonian period.  When counting the layers of fossilized coral, the number of layers present is much higher than the sum total of days in that period.  We can account for this difference by calculating how much faster the earth was rotating in the past.  The results show us that a day in the Devonian period lasted about 22 hours, and there were 400 days in a year accounting for the extra layers of calcium in the fossilized coral.

Moonscape, Jun87, by DonArnold

Luna, from the Latin lucere, meaning to shine was the Roman goddess of the moon, animals and hunting.  Her symbol is a crescent  ☾.  The word luna and the word moon were used in common language for many hundreds of years to describe our neighboring satellite.  In 1919, the first meeting of the newly formed International Astronomical Union was held, and the name was standardized to “moon”.  This month we will experience all phases of the moon, including a Harvest Moon and a Blue Moon.  You can track moonrise, moonset and phases by date and time, plus lots of other lunar information, from the Time and Date website.  I hope you find Halloween to be an enjoyable and interesting time this year.

Pumpkins

We are quickly approaching two of my favorite holidays, and they both involve pumpkins!  Everyone knows something about pumpkins from their bright orange color to their unique taste.  Let’s go further and explore some of the many ways this wonderful fruit has impacted our culture.

Pumpkins are a fruit from various species of winter squash, all from the genus Cucurbita.  The type of fruit is called ‘pepo’, which is from the Greek word ‘pepon’ meaning a large melon.  Pumpkins are native to northeastern Mexico and the southern United States.  Pumpkins are one of the oldest domesticated plants, found as early as 7500 B.C.  They are grown on every continent except Antarctica, and they are widely used throughout the world for food, aesthetic and recreational purposes.  About half of the world’s crop is grown in China and India.  The U.S. grows about 2.2 billion pounds of pumpkins each year, comprising less than 4% of the world’s production.

Pumpkins should be planted in late May in our area.  Plants produce both male and female flowers.  Flowers can be fertilized by a wide range of pollinator insects, but historically the plants attract the native squash bee, Peponapis pruinoso or the Eastern bumblebee, Bombus impatiens.  Pollen grains from the plants in this genus are quite large, and can be managed by only a handful of species.  With the decline in the population of squash bees in the U.S., commercial production will use captive honeybees or hand pollination if there are not enough wild bees in an area.

Pumpkins are classified as fruit, the seed bearing structure of a flowering plant.  As they start to grow, they are green and will turn to orange for the same reason green leaves on deciduous trees change to fall colors.  As the amount of daylight begins to decrease in the autumn, chlorophyll production slows and then ceases.  The remaining carotenoids in the skin of the fruit are orange or red or yellow in color and are fully revealed after no more chlorophyll is left.  There are also pumpkin cultivars that have been grown to display other colors including white, red, yellow, green, and blue.  Cultivars with larger sized fruit generally produce 1-2 pumpkins per plant, medium sized fruit plants produce 3-6 pumpkins each and small sized fruit plants may produce 10-12 per plant. 

The largest growing sites in the U.S. are found in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania and California.  Illinois produces about 95% of the commercially available pumpkin products in the United States with Nestle’s Morton, Illinois, production plant selling 85% of all pumpkin products under the trade name Libby.  Edible parts of the plants include the shell, seeds, leaves and flowers.  Pumpkins can be boiled, steamed or roasted, and are most often mashed.  Popular pumpkin products include pie filling, spice pumpkin products and seeds, but are also used as dietary supplements by veterinarians, most often fed to poultry in the winter to help maintain egg production.  The original pumpkin pie cooked by colonists consisted of slicing off the top of the pumpkin, scooping out all of the seeds, filling the shell with milk, spices and honey, and cooking it for several hours in hot coals.

While pumpkins are a delicious food, they are also used in a variety of other ways.  “Punkin Chunkin” has been a competitive sport for many years and involves building a device to throw a pumpkin the farthest.  The Guinness world record is held by “Big 10 inch,” a pneumatic cannon that launched a pumpkin 5,545 feet in 2010 in Moab, Utah.  Note that pumpkins that burst in flight are disqualified.

Pumpkin festivals celebrating those who can grow the largest pumpkins are also popular all across the United States.  There will be four competition sites in Illinois this year and you can find all the information at Pumpkin Festivals.   Growers of giant pumpkins have been competing since at least the early 1960’s, and in 1979 in Philadelphia, a Nova Scotia farmer named Howard Dill won with a 438 pounder.  In 2012, the first 1-ton plus pumpkin won the Topsfield, Massachusetts weigh off at 2,009 pounds, grown by Ron Wallace of Greene, RI.  In 2019, the winner was an impressive 2,517 pounds grown by Karl and Beverly Haist in New York.  Don’t plan to enter unless you can top at least the one-ton mark; nothing less will be considered by most festivals this year!

Literature is another place we find many references to pumpkins.  Charles Perrault, a French author, published “Tales and Stories of the Past With Morals” in 1697.  Among the many stories in the work was “Cinderella,” a folk tale about undeserved oppression and reward.  Invited to the royal ball, her fairy godmother provides Cinderella with the means to get there by turning a pumpkin into a beautiful coach.  Another work, “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow’, published by Washington Irving in 1820, tells the story of Ichabod Crane being attacked on Halloween night by the Headless Horseman who carries a pumpkin, his head, possibly, on his saddle.  And we have all enjoyed waiting for the Great Pumpkin with Linus each year on Halloween night.  As Linus tells us in “It’s the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown,” “On Halloween night, the Great Pumpkin rises out of his pumpkin patch and flies through the air with his bag of toys for all the children!”

Jack-o-lanterns are an autumn tradition dating far back into British and Irish history.  Their origin comes from an Irish tale about Stingy Jack, who invited the devil for a drink.  But Jack did not want to pay for the drinks, so he convinced the Devil to change into a coin, to be used for pay.  After changing, Jack decided not to use that coin, but to put it into his pocket next to a silver cross that prevented the devil from changing back.  Jack finally freed the devil under the condition that the devil would not bother him nor would he claim Jack’s soul when Jack died.  Soon after, Jack did die, and God would not let him into heaven because of his unsavory ways and the Devil would not let Jack into hell because of their agreement.  Jack was forced to forever wander the dark night, using a carved out turnip with a bright coal to light his way.  He was referred to as “Jack of the Lantern”, soon shortened to Jack O’Lantern.  People would carve scary faces into turnips and large beets to place in their windows to frighten away Stingy Jack’s ghost.  Carried over to the U.S. by colonists, pumpkins were found to make great Jack O’Lanterns.  They are still used today to scare away the evil spirits that roam the autumn nights.

Urban Wild

There are numerous animals in Illinois that have very successfully made the transition to living among people.  Let’s take a look at a few that can be seen in the area as well as in our own backyards.

Striped Skunk, Mephitis mephitis by Phil Myers

The striped skunk, Mephitis mephitis, has some very noticeable characteristics, yet it is one of the least noticed mammals roaming our urban areas.  Skunks have highly visible black and white stripes across their back and tail.  Skunks are omnivores, eating both plants and animals including seeds, insects, small mammals and carrion.  They are also opportunists with an excellent sense of smell allowing them to easily find pet food and bird seed put out by humans.  While searching for grubs, one of their favorite foods, skunks can cause considerable lawn damage when tearing up grass in well-watered areas.  They are nocturnal and have few natural predators.  When threatened or attacked, skunks have the ability to spray an oily musk from two glands located near the base of their tails.  A skunk can aim and spray up to ten feet, and the odor is pungent enough to be detectable up to one-and-a-half miles.  Tomato juice neutralizes the odor and may help to remove it from clothes, hair and pets.  Striped skunks are intelligent and usually good natured.  Skunks have been sold as pets in some states, although Illinois is not one of those.  They can live about seven years in the wild and up to ten years in captivity.

Red Fox, Vulpes vulpes by Kevin Castle

The red fox, Vulpes vulpes, lives in a wide range of habitats, and has been steadily moving into urban areas over the last 30-50 years.  The red fox’s preferred habitat is open woodlands, but they will also reside in urban environments, especially those that are close to forest preserves or other wooded areas.  They are omnivores, and their preferred prey includes fruit, rabbits, birds, mice and other small rodents.  Their home range is 1 to 2 square miles, with most dens found in sunny woodland areas.  Human habitation close to any wooded area such as large city parks, forest preserves or company campuses provide great hunting and feeding opportunities.  Red fox are also moving into urban areas where there is less competition with coyotes for food as well as less likelihood of themselves becoming prey to coyotes.

Raccoon, Procyon lotor by DonArnold

The Raccoon, Procyon lotor,  has been aggressively moving into city and suburban areas over the last 80 years.  Studies at York University, Toronto, have shown that raccoons are very intelligent animals and able to learn to avoid the many dangers and obstacles found in a human dominated environment.  They have five toes on their front paws, all of which are nimble and have great dexterity, allowing them to feel objects and learn how the object works.  Raccoons are good at puzzle solving, providing ample opportunities for opening latches, entering garages, attics and pet doors, and getting into various food containers including trash cans, pet food and bird seed containers.  They eat a wide range of food including insects, bird seed, trash, pet food, fruits, fish and bird eggs.  Raccoons are nocturnal, active at night and sleeping most of the day.  Raccoons can cause considerable lawn damage, digging for grubs and earthworms in well-watered areas.  They can also be destructive in the home garden, consuming fruits and vegetables before they are fully ripe.  Some of their favorites include corn, grapes and berries.

Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus by DonArnold

The Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, a relative newcomer to northeastern Illinois, is found in large open patches.  Bald Eagles have been seen in great numbers in Illinois for many years, but usually they are found during winter, feeding along the Mississippi River, one of their favorite flyways and a great source of fish through the colder months of the year.  In the last twenty years, they have been observed in increasing numbers within the suburban areas of northeastern Illinois.  Nesting pairs staying throughout the year have been documented in Palos Park, Lake Calumet, and Lake County as well as several other areas with large lakes.  The many lakes and rivers in northeastern Illinois support large fish populations, providing an abundant food supply.  Eagles’ preferred nesting sites are high up, in large trees, overlooking a favorite hunting area.  There are many towns, parks and forest preserves with programs to save and preserve older trees and woodland areas, providing excellent nesting opportunities.

These are just a few examples chosen from many showing us how wild species living in this area for many years are adapting to humans.  Trees, pollinator gardens, woodlands, open spaces, lakes, ponds, marshes and streams all play an important part in meeting our need for natural areas for recreation and aesthetics.  These areas also support insects, small mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles and larger animals, with a well-developed food chain and plenty of places to live in.  Everyone can help maintain these patches of natural area at home by creating new habitat and protecting existing habitat on their property.  Whenever you have an opportunity, work with city, county and state  officials to improve public lands for wildlife. 

Interconnected backyard habitat by DonArnold

Backyards provide year-round habitat for many smaller animals.  Many species will spend an entire season in this area when summer and winter requirements are met.  In addition, migratory species may use backyards for stopover points to rest and feed.  Trees and shrubs provide cover for protection, resting spots for migration, and housing areas for seasonal or year-round inhabitants.  Pollinator plants, trees and gardens, free of pesticides, provide a great variety of food for various species.  Clean water, a necessity for all species, can be provided in an array of different ways including ponds, birdbaths, fountains, and streams.  As more of these elements are connected together, such as several backyards comprising a larger area, these elements can provide habitat for a greater number of species for us to enjoy.

Clouds

As I sit outside and watch all those gray and white dragons and trains float by, I wonder what makes up a cloud, as they billow and move lazily past me, forever changing shape.  As we observe clouds, they provide weather information, shade, moisture, and sometimes entertainment.

Hole-punch altocumulus cloud, by DonArnold

Clouds are made from water and particles of both organic and inorganic matter. These may include dust, pollen, soot, and smoke.  Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air.  Air can hold a certain amount of water at any given temperature and warmer air can hold more water than cooler air.  When the temperature reaches the point where the air is 100% saturated, the water condenses onto these particles.  When massed together by the billions, the particles and water together form clouds.  The droplets are so small that they are kept aloft by air turbulence and wind.

Clouds come in many shapes and are found at different levels in the atmosphere.  Basic cloud types include cumulus, stratus, and cirrus.  Cumulus clouds are dense, fluffy piles with rounded tops usually formed from the rising of warm over cooler air.  Stratus clouds appear as a flat and featureless blanket or sheet, in varying shades of gray from nearly white to very dark.  Cirrus clouds, found at very high altitudes, are made of ice crystals, appearing as narrow bands or thin, feathery patches.

Cirrostratus clouds, by DonArnold
Cirrostratus clouds, by DonArnold

Cloud names may be combined to describe additional characteristics.  Cirrostratus clouds appear as several layers of narrow bands, while stratocumulus clouds appear as many fluffy forms compressed together into a large sheet of clouds.  Prefixes added to cloud names include alto signifying middle level altitudes, and nimbo or nimbus signifying clouds with precipitation. 

Cumulonimbus cloud, by DonArnold

In Illinois, we average 167 days each year with some type of cloud in the sky.  We can tell quite a bit about the immediate weather by simply looking at the clouds.  Cirrus clouds are an indicator of fair weather.  If cirrus clouds are getting thicker, this indicates that a warm front is approaching, bringing the possibility of precipitation, followed by clearing skies and warming temperatures.  Stratus clouds are associated with overcast skies and relatively stable air masses.  They may form fog or light precipitation, but are not associated with heavier storms.  Cumulus clouds that do not grow very tall are an indication of fair weather.  But, if cumulus clouds should start to grow, the atmosphere is unstable and pushing those droplets to greater heights.  This may lead to light or heavy rain depending on the growth rates and heights of the clouds.  Altocumulus clouds in the morning may well lead to precipitation in the later parts of the day or evening.

Cumulus clouds, by DonArnold

There is an average of 2,000,000,000,000 (two trillion) gallons of water in the atmosphere over Illinois at any given moment, and clouds may return this water to the ground in several different forms of precipitation.  Rain is liquid water formed as droplets between 1/10″ and 1/4″ in diameter.  Snow is when water vapor freezes inside a cloud into a crystalline form and falls through a cold air mass.  Sleet is formed when snow from a higher, colder altitude, falls through a warm layer of air, turning to liquid rain followed by a cold layer near the surface refreezing the water into small ice crystals.  Freezing rain falls as liquid water, but lands on a surface that is cold enough to have the rain drops freeze into ice as they hit.  Hail is made from many layers of ice that accumulate on a falling particle.  As the particle falls through each layer of atmospheric clouds, more water attaches and freezes to form each layer of ice. 

Most clouds form in upper layers of the atmosphere, but fog is also a type of cloud.  It forms when the air temperature immediately above ground level falls to the dew point temperature, and water vapor condenses on any particles in that air mass.  Fog usually forms when there is little or no movement of air at ground level, or it quickly dissipates.  Fog can create a surreal, almost magical scene, while at the same time conditions may become quite dangerous depending on where the fog appears and its density.

Stratus clouds, rain&rainbow, by DonArnold

Clouds can also make fantastic art and can spur our imagination.  Artists throughout the past several hundred years have painted and photographed many varying forms providing character and depth to many works of art.  There are even artists today who create real clouds indoors for our fascination and enjoyment.  Take some time and get outside yourself to observe this wonderful imagination-inspiring scientific phenomena.

Wildlife Photographer

At one time, I wanted to be a professional wildlife photographer.  But not just any wildlife.  After all, I like snakes.  Several years ago, Joe & Mary Ann McDonald offered an ‘advanced’ workshop, inviting just five photographers to come to their farm for three days to shoot pictures of some very unusual reptile species.  Most of the subjects were either venomous or large and difficult to handle, or both.  It was educational, fun, a little wild and very exciting.

The animals were flown in from all over the world and brought out to the farm by a professional handler.  They were kept in pens, boxes or cages in the McDonalds’ basement for the week while they rested, before continuing their travels to zoos and other institutions worldwide.  Each day, seven of us, Joe, Mike (the handler), and five photographers would head out to Joe’s studio located in a separate 40’x40′ building out back.  The studio had racks of equipment in back, room for everyone to sit, whiteboards and a large area in front for a lecturer or for someone to demonstrate equipment and techniques.

Egyptian Banded Cobra, Naja haje by DonArnold
Transpecos Copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix by DonArnold
Formosan Cobra, Naja naja by DonArnold

A display area was created by placing an eight foot square table in the front of the room.  As each new animal was brought out, the table was swept clean and then filled with plants, soil, rocks and/or sand representative of the natural areas where you would find that animal in the wild.  Each animal was placed into the scene and given some time to get comfortable.  For each subject, the first round of shots lasted 5 minutes, and everyone was to shoot from across the room with long lenses.  For the second round, each photographer would have 2 minutes to shoot from as close up or as far away as he wanted from the scene. 

Puff Adder, Bitis arietans, by DonArnold
Massassauga Rattlesnake, Sisturus catenatus by DonArnold

There were a few tortoises and some lizards, but the exciting part of the shoot was the rattlesnakes, vipers, and cobras.  One of our discussions was about what to do in case an animal got off the table.  We learned that tortoises and lizards would generally head for the nearest dark corner to hide from us.  But the snakes might have other ideas about defense and escape.  Rattlesnakes and most vipers strike horizontally, just a few inches off the ground, so climbing the equipment racks at the back of the room was a good escape route.  Adders and cobras strike upward, which was where the rooms windows came in handy.  As Joe said, “remember to tuck and roll when you hit the ground outside”.  Fortunately, there were no incidents during any of the more than twenty times Joe offered this workshop.

This workshop provided the opportunity to get my dream shot, a picture that I had always wanted as a wildlife photographer, but thought I would never have a ‘safe’ opportunity to get.  Outside of the studio, Joe had a small pond, about 30 x 40 feet, that was from several inches to about six feet deep.  There were logs and rocks at one corner and plenty of swimming room.  I lay on my belly in the pond with my camera on a tripod in front of my face so the lens was no more than an inch above the water surface.  There were a couple Dwarf Caiman, a Spectacled Caiman, and an American Alligator in the pond with me.  As they swam by me and toward me, I was able to get the shot with only the nose and eyes of the predator coming right at me.  They swam around me as well, and were just as curious about me as I was about them.  They bumped their noses along the length of my body as I lay underwater, starting at my ankle and continuing all the way to my shoulder.  Alligators, crocodiles and caiman have thousands of touch-sensitive organs, called integumentary sensory organs, in their faces and all along the rest of their body.  Their snout is much more sensitive than human fingertips allowing the animal to investigate objects as well as detecting different levels of water pressure.  These were well fed, Mike told me when he let them go in the pond…

Dwarf Caiman, Paleosuchus palpebrosus by DonArnold
American Alligator, Alligator mississippiensis by DonArnold

There are dozens of photography workshops offered online, in schools, and by private photographers and studios.  Whether you are an aspiring professional or a weekend hobbyist, I highly encourage you to try one or more of these.  Start small with a single day or go big on a multi-week nature adventure.  Get online and learn a few new techniques that you can take out to your backyard and have fun with on your own.  There are many exciting opportunities waiting for all.

Hawks

Hawks and their allies are members of the Accipitridae family.  We have several commonly seen species in DuPage County including Cooper’s Hawk and Red-Tailed Hawk, which are year-round residents and Sharp-Shinned Hawk, a species here only in winter.  Other species that may be seen in the area include Broad-Winged Hawk, a summertime only resident, Northern Harrier and Red-Shouldered Hawk, both seen year-round, and Northern Goshawk and Rough-Legged Hawk, also here only in the winter.

Red-Tailed Hawk by Tanya Dewey

Hawks in our area are medium-sized birds, active during the day, with hooked beaks for feeding, and long, sharp talons for catching, holding and killing prey.  The Red-Tailed Hawk, Buteo jamaicensis, is often seen gliding on winds high aloft over open fields.  The  Sharp-Shinned Hawk, Accipiter striatus, and Cooper’s Hawk, Accipiter cooperii, are mostly seen zipping among the trees in open woodlands or in our backyards.

Sharp-Shinned by Steve Hinshaw

Hawks are among the top avian predators in this area.  They have excellent eyesight and can see clearly four to eight times farther than our human eyes.  As hunters in mainly terrestrial habitats, their coloring blends in with their environments.  Most are brown, grey or black, with pale underparts often streaked or barred in shades of brown.  Combining their coloration with their ability to fly very quietly, most prey are unaware of the hawk until they have already been set upon.  Hawks eat a wide variety of foods including other birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates. 

Coopers Hawk by Jim & Robin Kunze

Many hawks show a distinct size difference between the sexes, with the female being larger.  There is no consensus as to why this difference exists.  In birds of the accipiter group, including Sharp-Shinned Hawk and Cooper’s Hawk, the males and females will select prey of different sizes and habitats.  This allows a mated pair to find food in two different ecological niches.  Members of the accipiter group feed mostly on other bird species and are just as well adapted to chasing smaller birds through open woodland areas as they are to attacking perching birds from available cover around backyard feeders.  Species in this group have long tails to increase maneuverability, particularly in open woods and forest edges.

Red-Shouldered Hawk by Jane & Michael Pawlukiewicz

Hawks in our area all mate for life, unless a partner is lost.  All species use display flights to attract a mate, and displays may be used by either sex.  Red-Tailed Hawks are unusual in that both sexes have display flights that are started individually, but end together.  Hawks in DuPage County are solitary nesters.  They actively defend the territory that includes their nest as well as nearby feeding habitat from other hawks of their own species.  Nests are built from vegetation, mostly sticks, and a pair may have more than one nest in an area, and nests may be used for many years.  Switching among nests occurs if breeding fails or a nest is infected by parasites.  Whenever possible, fresh vegetation or pine needles are placed in the nest, possibly to provide concealment, serve as a natural coolant, reduce odor or fungal growth, or to signal that the nest is currently occupied.  Nests are further insulated with finer material to keep the occupants warm as well as to keep eggs from falling between sticks.  Nests are very important, and hawks tend to spend several weeks or months building and constantly improving them. 

Northern Harrier by Phil Myers

As egg laying time approaches in early to mid-spring, males will keep supplying nesting material, as females construct and shape the interior.  Egg laying consumes a lot of energy, so females tend to lay an egg every other day.  The number of eggs in a clutch varies from two to six depending on species and tends to increase in breeding locations farther north.  Both male and female will incubate the eggs for a period of 28 to 35 days.  Incubation starts as soon as the first egg is laid, so earlier chicks may be born first and tend to be stronger than later chicks.  After hatching, males do most of the hunting, and females spend all of their time with the chicks.  Chicks can hold up their heads, open their eyes and feed by sight within minutes of hatching.  Females will wave a bit of prey in front of each chick until the chick snatches it from the mother’s beak.  If the bit proves too big for the chick to swallow, the mother may take it back and eat it herself and start with a new bit of prey.  In the nest, chicks are very susceptible to weather changes, and females will spread their wings to protect them from both rain and hot sun.

Rough-Legged Hawk by David Mindell

In northern Illinois, the Broad-Winged Hawk migrates to Central America for the winter.  Several species from summer breeding grounds in central Canada, including Sharp-Shinned Hawk, Northern Goshawk, and Rough-Legged Hawk, migrate into northern Illinois for the winter.  All migrating species fly during the day when winds are more favorable for long distance flight.  Juveniles and adults will fly at different times and different speeds, coming together at their destinations.  Some species may flock together, but most are solitary flyers.  However, none will attempt long water crossings, tending to follow land for the whole journey.  Fall migration starts in mid-August and lasts through November, normally on days following the passage of a cold front, when the air is cooler, drier and more stable.

Northern Goshawk by Tanya Dewey

Over the past few decades, hawks have faced a number of threats including hunting, pesticides and loss of habitat.  However, they have been able to adapt well to their changing environment.  Breeding bird survey statistics indicate that most species have seen increasing populations in the past twenty years, assisted by reduced pesticide use, increased dedication of rehabilitation facilities, and better education, altering the views of hawks held by the general public.

The Itch!!

Over the past few months, like many other people, I have been out hiking in the area Forest Preserves and natural sites.  Each time I go out, I try to think about getting properly prepared before heading out the door.  Will I be hiking off the trail through long grass?  Will I need long pants, long sleeves or a hat?  How about deterring mosquitoes?  Are they out now and should I be taking along protection?  Here are some simple precautions to make your hike a great experience.

Poison Ivy vine, Toxicodendron radicans by Kerry Wixted
Poison Ivy, Toxicodendron radicans by Janet Tarbox

If you are a steward or wildlife monitor, you may well be hiking off the trail and into areas where the plants are not easy to see, identify, or walk around.  And even if you are just out for a nice hike on the trail, species growing along the edges may be ones that you want to be sure to avoid.  Poison Ivy,Toxicodendron radicans, is one of the best known plants found everywhere in northern Illinois that causes itching, a rash or swelling.  The plant is commonly found in woodlands and savannas, but can also be found in dry meadows or along prairie edges.  It grows as a small shrub or as a woody vine, wrapping around tree trunks and climbing to great heights.  The leaves are distinctive: they grow in groups of three and have smooth edges, often with a thumb on the two side leaves.  Vines growing up trees are thick and hairy, with many small tendrils reaching out to anchor the plant to a trunk or limb.  Every part of the plant contains an oil that may cause a rash or itching when touched.  It is easy to brush a plant and have the oil cling to a shoe or cloth surfaces, which can be a further problem if not washed out.  If you get the oil on your skin or clothes, wash with cool water and soap, or consider using Tecnu Original Outdoor Skin Cleanser, a specialty line of products, to remove the oil.

Wild Parsnip, Pastinaca sativa by John W.

Wild Parsnip, Pastinaca sativa, a species introduced from Europe and commonly found in prairies, vacant lots, roadsides, woodland edges and along railroad tracks is another plant to watch for and avoid.  The flowers are arrayed in a slightly curved umbel at the end of tall stems, showing bright yellow petals, sometimes mistaken for Golden Alexanders which bloom earlier in spring.  The plant can grow from two to five feet high.  All parts of the plant contain a UV-phototoxic juice that will transfer easily to skin or clothes if the plant is brushed against.  This juice can cause a burn-like rash that is severely multiplied in effect when exposed to direct sunlight.  A burn may also appear on cloudy days from ultraviolet wavelength light present even through cloud cover.  Any exposure should be treated as a possible serious burn, and you should seek medical assistance.

American Dog Tick, Dermacentor variabilis by Roy Cohutta

Animals may also cause problems.  Ticks, along with spiders and mites, are members of the class Arachnida.  These animals feed on mammals, birds and reptiles.  Ticks perch on foliage between ground level and about four feet high and wait for an animal to brush against them.  They leave their perches and find a suitable spot to latch onto their host using a hook-like appendage located below their mouth.  After a blood meal, the engorged tick will simply drop off to the ground.  However, they can carry diseases harmful to humans. 

Gulf Coast Tick, Amblyomma maculatum by Roy Cohutta
Lone Star Tick, Amblyomma americanum by mossdude
Black-Legged Tick, Ixodes scapularis by Lynette Elliot

There are four common tick species in our area including the American Dog Tick, sometimes referred to as the wood tick, the Lone Star Tick, the black-legged tick, also known as the deer tick, and the Gulf Coast tick.  Wood ticks are generally harmless to humans; deer ticks may carry Lyme Disease; the Lone Star Tick may carry Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever; and the Gulf Coast Tick, new to this area within the past 18 months, may carry Tidewater Spotted Fever. 

Eastern Yellow Jacket by Lynette Elliott

The Eastern Yellow Jacket, Vespula maculifrons, is an insect that comes out in the heat of late summer.  Yellow Jackets are social wasps that live together in one hive. In spring, a single  mated female, called a queen, builds a nest at ground level or possibly in a fallen stump or log.  She will tend the larvae until the first brood of adults, all sterile females, emerge.  The adults take over all nest maintenance while the queen continues to lay eggs.  In autumn, eggs for new queens are laid, as well as unfertilized male eggs.  New queens and males emerge in late autumn, mate and the new queens seek shelter for the winter in litter or soil.  With the arrival of winter, the remaining colony dies. 

All wasps are predatory and keep populations of smaller species, such as mites and aphids, under control in our gardens.  While these insects are predatory, they are also attracted by any sweet odor and can be pests for outdoor dining.  The females can sting and be very aggressive when trying to nab food from your picnic.  If they are threatened, especially if a nest is found and agitated, they will swarm, stinging repeatedly and may give chase for long distances. 

Inland Floodwater Mosquito, Aedes vexans by Robert Lord Zimlich

The mosquito, one of our least favorite insects, is best known for the biting females, which must have a blood meal in order to develop eggs.  Males do not bite, but feed on plant juices.  Mosquitos are considered one of the most harmful insects to humans because of the many diseases they may carry.  Also dangerous to canines, mosquitos are the primary cause of heartworm disease.  There are several different species of mosquito found in Illinois, active during a wide range of day and night hours.  Most of the bites in northern Illinois cause an itching sensation that can last for several days; however, they may also be vectors for West Nile Virus.  Best practices to avoid being bitten include wearing light colored clothes, using an insect repellant when outside, and removing any standing water from your yard.  There are several good websites including Illinois EPA for Mosquito Control.

DewDew Dew-Dah

How’s the weather outside today?  Are you feeling a little warmer than you would like?  Have you seen the weather forecast, and do you really know what all those numbers mean? 

The simplest is temperature which is a measurement of the heat content of the air.  The two popular scales are Celsius and Fahrenheit.  Both have two defined points:  the freezing point of fresh water at sea level is 0°C / 32°F, and the boiling point of fresh water at sea level is 100°C / 212°F.  Note that the Fahrenheit scale, created in 1724 based on experiments carried out at that time by Polish physicist Danielle Gabriel Fahrenheit, is commonly used today in only four countries including Belize, Myanamar, Liberia and the United States, and only for non-scientific applications. 

Another popular number shown on most weather predictions is either heat index or wind chill.  If the apparent temperature, the “it-feels-like” number, is higher than the actual temperature, it is shown as heat index; if it is lower, it is shown as wind chill.  The heat index is derived from temperature and relative humidity and indicates heat gained between the human body and the atmosphere.  The wind chill is derived from temperature and wind speed and indicates heat lost between the human body and the atmosphere.

The human body removes heat by perspiring and letting drier air wick heat away.  When the relative humidity is high enough that perspiration does not evaporate, then there is no cooling effect.  The human body begins to absorb heat from the atmosphere and is in danger of suffering a heat related illness.  As heat or relative humidity rises, the combination becomes more dangerous.  The National Weather Service has published the heat index shown here:

The wind chill index is derived from temperature and wind speed, and indicates heat lost between the human body and the atmosphere.  Wind chill formulas vary greatly worldwide, but since 2001, the U.S., Canada and the U.K. have agreed on a standardized formula that uses the following assumptions: the wind is striking a bare face on a person walking 3mph into a 3mph headwind at an actual temperature of 10°C / 50°F or lower.  As the actual temperature falls or the wind speed rises, the wind chill falls and the danger of a cold related illness increases.  The National Weather Service has published the wind chill index shown here:

When reading a weather report, humidity and relative humidity are two terms often used interchangeably.  However, humidity, properly called absolute humidity and expressed in grams, is the amount of water vapor, by weight, in a cubic meter of air.  This measurement is rarely used outside of scientific experiments.  Another term is dew point temperature, a number that is considered by most meteorologists to be a better indicator of moisture in the air than relative humidity.

Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air relative to the maximum amount of water vapor that air can hold at a given temperature.  As the temperature rises but the water content remains the same, relative humidity drops because warmer air can hold more water vapor than cooler air.  This means that if the air temperature is 80°F at noon and 84°F at 2:00 pm, but the water vapor content is constant, relative humidity will be lower at 2:00 pm even though the air is not any drier.  And what we “feel” is the actual amount of moisture, i.e. the absolute humidity, in the air.  So, while the relative humidity is dropping, it does not “feel” more comfortable.

The dew point temperature is also an indicator of how much water vapor is in the air, as well as how it “feels” to us.  Dew point is calculated by the use of a hygrometer, a polished metal mirror that is cooled until water vapor in the air starts to condense on the surface.  The temperature when condensation first starts is the dew point temperature. 

When the outside air temperature cools down to where it is the same as the dew point, water condenses to form fog at surface levels, clouds at levels aloft, or a film of dew on surfaces.  The larger the spread between temperature and dew point, the more comfortable we feel because as the temperature rises and the dew point remains constant or falls, the air becomes drier.

Humidity can make you feel uncomfortable whether you are in shade or sun, whether it is windy or calm, or whether you are acclimated to heat or not.  As the dew point gets higher and closer to the actual temperature, we start to feel that humidity; we start to feel ‘sticky’.  Remember, a person gets cool by perspiring, and no matter what the actual temperature, we can only get cool when perspiration can evaporate which only happens when air is not already saturated.  A dew point greater than 65 is uncomfortable to most people.  Dew point temperatures above 70 indicate unstable air conditions that may lead to severe weather.

All of this and more is included in the science of biometeorology; the study of weather and its effects on the human body.  I will look at additional aspects of this science in later columns.  To locate these numbers, take a look at your favorite weather website, or try one of the following:

www.weather.com   The Weather Channel   Today, Hourly, 10-day   Temp, clouds, wind speed & direction, chance of precip, heat index, windchill, humidity, UV index
www.accuweather.com  Accuweather  Hourly, Daily, Radar, Air Quality   Temp, clouds, wind speed & direction, Humidity, UV, DP
www.wunderground.com   Weather Underground   Hourly, Daily, Historical   Temp, clouds, wind speed & direction, chance of precip, heat index, windchill, humidity, DP, pressure
www.weather.gov   National Weather Service / NOAA   Current, Daily Forecast, History   Temp, clouds, wind speed & direction, humidity, pressure, DP
www.weatherbug.com   Weatherbug   Current, Hourly, 10-day    Temp, clouds, wind speed & direction, heat index, windchill, humidity, DP
https://www.wsdot.com/traffic/passes/snoqualmie/   Snoqualmie Current Weather    My favorite ski area 🙂

Summer Pollinator Bloom

It has been a couple of months since I shared a visit in our pollinator garden, and we were in the middle of a warm and wet spring which turned into a hot, dry summer.  Now, it is mid-summer and a new set of flowers are in bloom and being heavily visited by a variety of pollinators including bees, wasps, ants and butterflies. 

Grey Headed Coneflower, Ratabida pinnata, by DonArnold
Pale Purple Coneflower, Echinacea pallida, by DonArnold
Purple coneflower, Echinacea purpurea, by DonArnold

The coneflowers, members of the Aster family, are an easily recognized group of flowers.  Grey-headed coneflower, Ratabida pinnata, grows a tall stalk, up to 4′, with a grey/green head of seeds surrounded by bright yellow, drooping rays.  From the base of the flower moving upwards, seeds turn brown as they mature and are a favorite food for goldfinch.  This species is also known for attracting many beneficial insects such as chalcid wasps, syrphid flies and minute pirate bugs, that keep harmful insects including caterpillars, sawfly larvae and various beetles under control.  Purple coneflower, Echinacea purpurea, is a nectar source for monarch, red admiral and swallowtail butterflies.  Considered a rare species in northern Illinois, it can grow up to 5′ tall.  Flower heads are 2.5″-5″ in diameter composed of up to 20 purple petals surrounding an orange-brown array of disk flowers.  A similar species is the pale purple coneflower, Echinacea pallida.  Flowers are on single stems up to 3′ tall with pale purple petals that are skinnier and droopier than the purple coneflower.  The center of the flower head is a dark brown array of disk flowers.  More commonly found than purple coneflower, this plant is visited by a much greater variety of butterflies including American Lady, Red Admiral, Great Spangled Fritillary and Baltimore Checkerspot.

Black-eyed Susan, Rudbeckia hirta, by DonArnold

The black-eyed Susan, Rudbeckia hirta, is another member of the Aster family.  Flowers are on single stalks growing to 3.5′ tall and are 2″-3″ wide with a dark brown, button-like central disk surrounded by 8-20 yellow, ray flowers.  Historically, a tea was made from the leaves for treatment of common cold symptoms, and flower petals made be used to make yellow dyes.  The plant is a food source for almost four dozen bee species in our area, providing both pollen and nectar.  In addition, many species of wasps, beetles, true bugs and butterflies also feed on this plant.

Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, by DonArnold
Eastern Tiger Swallowtail on Buttonbush, by DonArnold

Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis, a shrub commonly found in wet areas, hosts more than two dozen bird species in addition to bees, true bugs and butterflies.  This shrub can grow from 3′ to more than 12′ tall, and likes moist to permanently wet soils.  Flower heads appear as bristly balls on stalks attached to the main stem at the junction of leaf stalks.  Each flower structure is about 1″ in diameter containing a nut-like fruit that stays on the shrub through most of the winter, providing a great food source for non-migrating native birds. 

Common Ironweed, Vernonia fasciculata, by DonArnold

Common ironweed, Vernonia fasciculata, grows up to 6′ high and offers both nectar and pollen for insects.  Flower heads form a dense cluster at the top of each stalk and are composed of 15-25 brightly colored purple disk flowers.  Bees are able to see in the ultra-violet ranges, and the outer surface of the flowers reflect ultra-violet light, while the inner surfaces absorb it.  This contrast makes the flower easy to locate for bees.  Seeds are fluffy, brown and wind-dispersed.  This plant is a host species for American Painted Lady butterflies and several additional butterflies that regularly visit for nectar including Easter Tiger Swallowtail, Monarch and Pearl Crescent.

Cardinal flower, Lobelia cardinalis, by DonArnold

The Cardinal flower, Lobelia cardinalis, provides a colorful contrast to some of the other plants at this time of year.  An uncommon species, possibly due to its intolerance of areas with road salt, it can be found growing wild in woodlands, typically along stream beds.  It is regularly visited by the Ruby-throated Hummingbird and Pipevine Swallowtail butterfly.  The flowers are a brilliant red arranged in a long column from the top of the stem downward.  These species will make a wonderful addition to any pollinator or perennial garden.

Woodpeckers

My backyard is filled with birds at this time of year, and some of the most distinctive ones flash through the trees and across the feeders with black and white wing bars and some bright red highlights.  These are woodpeckers, in the family Picidae (pis-a-dee).  Seven members of this family are found in DuPage County: downy woodpecker, Dryobates pubescens; hairy woodpecker, Dryobates villosus; red-headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus; pileated woodpecker, Dryocopus pileatus; Northern flicker, Colaptes auratus; red-bellied woodpecker, Melanerpes carolinus; and yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius.

Dryobates pubescens, Downy Woodpecker by Phil Myers
Dryobates villosus, Hairy Woodpecker by Phil Myers

Woodpeckers naturally live in areas with large tracts of woods.  However, several of these species have adapted to living among human dwellings and backyard bird feeders.  Primarily insect eaters, these birds can find food by foraging under tree bark and listening for insect movement, then chiseling away the bark to get to the prey.  Sapsuckers drill out rows of holes across the bark and feed on the sap of the tree, as well as any insects drawn to the sap.  Flickers, and pileated woodpeckers in particular, are known for the large quantities of ants they consume.  Nuts, fruits and seeds supplement their diets.  Some woodpeckers, including red-headed, downy and hairy may store food.  The most commonly stored items are acorns, and storage sites are aggressively defended.

Melanerpes carolinus, Red-bellied woodpecker by Phil Myers

All woodpeckers are cavity nesters.  Nests are thermal regulated to some extent by facing the opening to the nest to the south or east in cooler climates, and the north or west in warmer areas.  Nests tend to be found in soft wood trees that are wide enough to support a cavity for both adults and young without coming near the sap layer just under the bark, so nests remain tidy.  Cavities are never made above a branch, presumably so that rain water cannot run into the opening.  Woodpeckers do not reuse old cavities, but these cavities are used by many other species in following years including squirrels, snakes and other bird species.

Sphyracipus varius, Yellow-bellied sapsucker by Phil Myers

Woodpeckers form long-term pair bonds except for sapsuckers who bond for one season.  There is one brood a year and both males and females care for the young.  Eggs are laid on a bed of new wood chips, and incubation lasts 11-14 days.  With a clutch size of between 4 and 6 eggs, young will take 24-30 days to fledge.  Woodpeckers will establish their own territories by the start of their second year.  Species do not migrate but may wander a couple hundred miles north or south in search of food and suitable nest sites.

Colaptes auratus, Northern Flicker by Phil Myers

One of the few bird species that do not sing, woodpeckers have simple calls that may sound like a rattle or a whirring noise.  Drumming is also widely used for marking territory, attracting mates and communication.  Both males and females drum.  Drumming is performed preferably on hard surfaces so sound carries a good distance.  This may include hard-wood trees as well as barrels, downspouts and sides of houses.  Drumming can be easily distinguished from the sound made when drilling for food by its very fast tempo.

Dryocopus pileatus, Pileated Woodpecker by Phil Myers

Bills, heads and bodies are all uniquely adapted to support drumming and wood chiseling.    Tails are very stiff and the two central feathers are pointed, reinforced with central ridges and have inward curved barbs with strong muscles to hold the bird upright and steady against a tree trunk.  Feet have four toes, two pointing forward and two backward to provide a solid platform for an upright stance.  Bills are stout, straight and chisel shaped to break wood apart.  Species that aggressively excavate tree trunks include downy, hairy and pileated woodpeckers.  These birds have extra feathers covering their nose to filter out sawdust and eyelids that close right before each strike of the bill.

Melanerpes erythrocephalus, Red-headed woodpecker by Phil Myers

As a group, woodpeckers have stable populations.  They may be locally declining in areas where there is heavy pesticide use on ant species, one of the staple food items for several species, particularly flickers in the Eastern U.S.  Competition from starlings for cavity sites may affect small populations.  Some birds are dependent on large woodland tracts, but evidence for the woodpecker populations in our area indicate that none are in danger.

Nocturnal Animals

I like to get outside every day, but with these really hot days oftentimes I go for a walk late in the evening as things start to cool off.  It is quieter and pleasant – but not too quiet.  There are still lots of sights and sounds of nature at night.  What are all of these animals that are out well into the night?  And why are they not active during the day?  And how do they see in order to do anything?

All animals use their senses to find food and shelter and avoid predators.  Nocturnal (active at night) animals have heightened senses or special adaptations that help them survive in the dark.  Sight is the sense that humans rely on the most, but it is not as useful when there is very little light available.  Structures in the eye called cones allow animals to see color.  Other structures called rods are used to gather light.  The more rods in the eye, the better an animal can see overall, and especially at night.  Some nocturnal animals such as raccoons, bobcats, owls and rabbits have many more rods than daytime animals allowing them to see much clearer in the dark.  And many of those same animals have very large pupils that let in more light.

Large eye pupils on Eastern Screech Owl,Megascops asio by Greg Hume

Owls, opossum, deer and fox have much better hearing than most other animals.  Hearing adaptations include having larger ears, many of which are cup-shaped in order to gather more and fainter sound waves.  A hertz (hz) is a unit of measure for soundwaves.  We can hear between 20hz and 20,000hz, whereas a mouse can hear from 1,000hz to 100,000hz.  This means the mouse can detect an insect moving under the leaves from several yards away.  Another adaptation of many nocturnal species is asymmetrical ears.  They can hear from each ear independently, allowing them to triangulate where the sound is originating.  Triangulation can help identify the direction the sound is coming from – right, left, up or down, as well as how far away the point of origin is.

Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis, by USFWS

Echolocation, a specialized version of a hearing adaptation is used by bats in our area.  The bat produces a high-pitched sound wave that is returned to the bat’s ears after it has bounced off another object.  Bats use echolocation to determine an object’s size, shape, distance and whether the object is moving or stationary.  If the object is moving, the bat can also determine the direction.  A bat can emit calls at a slow rate of 15-20 per second up to 200 per second when closing in on prey.

Coyote, Yosemite 2009 by Yathin S Krishnappa

Smell is another sense used for hunting.  Fox, raccoon, coyote, mink and skunk all have enhanced nasal passages and brain centers for detecting and identifying odors.  They have enhanced abilities to detect fainter odors and to be able to identify their origin to a finer degree.  Nighttime air is often still and moist, allowing scent molecules to linger longer, enabling an animal to better locate food as well as detect predators.

Two views of Wellington, New Zealand, taken same night by Science Learning Hub–Pokapū Akoranga Pūtaiao, University of Waikato, http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz

All of these differences make life easier at night for nocturnal species. There are fewer predators,  and it is easier to hide in order to avoid becoming a meal.  But there is also less competition with other predators to find food, and enhanced senses to create unique  hunting strategies.  Light pollution can be a huge negative influence on true nocturnal species.  Constant night light sources affect species dependent on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns.  Migration patterns may be disrupted; insects are attracted to light/heat sources only to be trapped and/or killed; reproductive cycles can be altered.  In the green frog, an Illinois native, males will call less and move around more making it much harder for females to find and mate with them. 

You can learn more by spending some time enjoying the nighttime yourself.  Use your senses to detect what is active in your own backyard after dark.  Try observing with and without a flashlight or your porch light.  Give other species time to get comfortable with you being outside by spending 5-7 minutes sitting quietly before moving around.  Use a cell phone to record what you are hearing, and write down your observations and experience as soon as you can after returning indoors.  Consider repeating this activity on a rainy night or a winter night, and keep a journal of your experiences to learn and better understand the habitats where you live. 

Backyard Activities

During the summer, I take a walk around the yard every day to observe the dozens of insects in the garden. It is fun to identify the species and watch the activities they are engaged in and learn how they keep my backyard healthy and looking so wonderful.  Here are some of the insects I recently observed.

Cabbage White Butterfly, Pieris rapae by Ypna

Bees, wasps, and flies often visit ‘Walker’s Low’ catmint, Nepeta faassenii, a purplish, low-spreading perennial that flourishes in bright sunny locations.  I most often see honey bees,  Apis mellifera, and cabbage white butterflies, Pieris rapae, visit the catmint.  Both insect species are taking nectar for food from the catmint.  They don’t stay long in any one place, and flit constantly from one flower stalk to another, taking small sips and moving on.

Eastern Black Swallowtail larva

Another hotspot for insects is in the vegetable garden.  We have tomatoes, peppers, beets, carrots, parsley and dill, Anethum graveolens, an annual herb in the celery family used as a spice for flavoring food.  Dill is also a host plant for the Eastern Black Swallowtail Butterfly, Papilio polyxenes.  After the eggs hatch, the earlier stage caterpillar is black overall, with sharp orange spikes covering the body and a white “saddle” in the middle.  As the caterpillar matures, it will lose the spikes, turn light green with yellow spots and whitish stripes, then enter the chrysalis stage and eventually emerge as an adult butterfly.

Crane Fly by DonArnold

Another winged insect you may see, the Crane Fly, a member of the Tipulidae family, has a bright orange body and glowing green eyes.  These insects can be found in moist woodlands or around bodies of water including a creek or pond running through your backyard.  They lay their eggs in water or moist environments, and the larvae live in the top layers of soil.  The larvae help to break down organic material in soils while the adults are an important food source for spiders, fish, small amphibians and birds.  The typical lifespan for an adult is only 1-2 weeks.

Monarch, Danaus plexippus by Captain Tucker
Monarch Eggs on Milkweed

Monarch butterflies, Danaus plexippus, are starting to appear daily.  The monarch is the State Insect of Illinois, and it is found throughout the state in all habitats except deep forest.  Up to  three generations are born each summer, and the last generation in late summer / early autumn is migratory, flying to overwintering sites mainly in the high altitude regions of Mexico.  Monarchs are dependent upon the many species of plants in the milkweed family, Asclepiadaceae.  Eggs are laid on leaves and the caterpillars feed exclusively on species of milkweed.  In recent years, we have seen a decline in the number of milkweed plants everywhere in Illinois, but you can help monarchs by planting them in your own yards and encouraging local business and government to do the same.

Popilla japonica, Japanese Beetle by DonArnold

The Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica, can be found on many plants in the garden.  It is an invasive species that does very little harm in its native country, but is a pest of over 300 species of roses, grapes, linden trees and numerous other plants.  The adults eat everything between the veins of the leaves, then the plants can no longer create their own food.  Japanese beetles display iridescent copper-colored wings folded over their backs behind a dark green head.  Several insects and parasitoids have been brought into the U.S. to control these beetles, with limited success.  Traps have also been developed, but data suggests that these merely entice the beetle to a host plant.

Green bottle fly, Lucilia sericata by DonArnold

The common green bottle fly, Lucilia sericata, also known as a blow fly, is a member of the fly family, Calliphoridae, comprising over 1200 known species.  Members of this family occur worldwide in almost every location that includes humans.  Adult flies feed on carbohydrate-rich nectar in the garden, as well as any decaying meat or garbage.  Dumpsters and garbage containers accessible from outside may attract flies in huge numbers.  Eggs are laid on carrion and larvae feed on the carrion.  The time period from egg to adult can be between 2 and 4 weeks, and a female may lay 10-15 clutches of 200 eggs each in her lifetime.  The best control for these insects is to keep refuse covered at all times.

Bullfrogs

Bullfrog in shallows, by DonArnold

Croak! Croak! Croooooak!  I live on a pond, and for the last week has it has belonged to the bullfrogs, Rana catesbeiana. The bullfrog is the largest species of frog in North America, and the ones in my pond are no exception.  Bullfrogs are green, yellow-green or brown with dark splotches on the back and dark leg bands.  The tympanum, or eardrum is immediately behind their eye.  On male bullfrogs, the tympanum is larger than the eye, and their throats are pale turning to dark yellow when breeding; on female bullfrogs, the tympanum is the same size as the eye and their throats are whitish.
 

Their preferred habitat is still, permanent bodies of water, with plenty of submerged and emergent vegetation.  Bullfrogs hibernate over the winter in the mud at the bottom of these permanent pools.  They like warmer water and generally will not emerge in spring until water temperatures are in the 15^C (60^F) range.   

Bullfrog in submerged vegetation, by DonArnold

Breeding, mating & calling activities start in late May and extend well into July.  Bullfrogs are normally active from early evening all through the nighttime hours, and may extend activities into the daytime.  They are most active on warm nights.  Males sit in the shallows or along the banks and create a low-pitched brrr-rum call to find a mate.  Males are territorial establishing an area roughly 5′ to 20′ in diameter that they actively defend from encroachment by other males.  Within the same pond, several males may have bordering territories, and neighbors will also aggressively object to a new frog attempting to take over an existing territory.  Larger males will establish themselves in the choicest sites hoping to lure females to an area good for egg-laying. 

Bullfrogs – The Confrontation, by DonArnold
Bullfrog wrestling, by DonArnold

The female deposits from 5,000 to 20,000 eggs in a thin-mucus covered, floating mass that may be from a foot to three feet in diameter.  Eggs will hatch in three to six days into tadpoles.  Tadpoles spend from one to two years living in the pond, feeding on algae or decaying material until metamorphosing into froglets in their second or third summer.  Bullfrogs become sexually mature in two to four years, and their lifespan is six to eight years.

Bullfrogs will eat nearly anything they can swallow including fish, snakes, turtles, other frogs, birds and small mammals, but the majority of their diet consists of invertebrates including dragonflies, beetles, insects, spiders, snails and crayfish.  Bullfrogs are also prey for fish, snakes, turtles, herons, otters, racoons and mink.  They are extensively hunted by man for the food industry, especially frog legs.  If threatened, they are equally comfortable on land and water and may flee to either habitat.  When caught, they emit a loud wailing scream that often times startles the predator and allows the bullfrog to escape.

In recent years, the pond behind my house has been naturalized with native vegetation.  The bullfrog population as well as many other species have responded very favorably to these efforts.  However, in many other areas, habitat loss, water pollution and  pesticide runoff have all been factors in the declining populations of bullfrogs and other amphibians.  Removal of shoreline vegetation for real estate or recreational development has damaged a number of breeding sites.  You can help by supporting efforts to keep local ponds, lakes and other wetland sites natural and undisturbed.

Male bullfrog in breeding colors, by DonArnold

Fireflies

Nights in your backyard at this time of year are filled with spectacular light displays created by lightning bugs, otherwise known as fireflies.  There are over 170 different species in the U.S., and fireflies can be found in every state except Hawaii, and on every continent except Antarctica.  The flashes are a form of communication, mainly for trying to attract a mate.

Lighning bug trails by JStuby, Indiana County, PA

Not all fireflies in the U.S. are ‘flashers’.  Some species are active only during the day and do not emit any light; several species are known as glowworms and emit a steady, glowing light.  Here in the Midwest and farther east, most species are ‘flashers’.  Flashing is a form of communication used in seeking and finding a mate.  The light is a byproduct from a bio-chemical reaction of oxygen with the enzyme luciferan plus ATP and manganese.  Different species will emit different colors of light from green to yellow to orange.  Colors can also be influenced by what time of day it is and how well they will show up against the background colors of the habitat.  Firefly enzymes have been widely studied by medical research facilities where doctors have been able to inject the enzymes into a test specimen and  duplicate the light emission to provide imaging of internal cell structures.  This procedure, known as bioluminescence imaging, is at the forefront of emerging technologies for studies of viral infection.

Black Firefly, Lucidota atra, by Kitchener, Ontario 2018

Fireflies are part of the beetle family and as in all species in this family, they undergo complete metamorphosis including four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.  Fireflies lay eggs in late summer in rotting logs, moist soil or deep mulch.  Larvae hatch in three to four weeks, and they are voracious predators of soft bodied invertebrates including snails, slugs, spiders, and earthworms.  Larvae live from one to two years, overwintering underground or deep in rotting wood.  They molt often during this stage of eating and growing.  Larvae pupate in late spring either in an underground burrow or in some species, by attachment to a tree branch where they hang upside-down.  In two to several weeks, depending on the species, a biochemical transformation will take place changing the larva into an adult.  After adults emerge, their only function is to reproduce.  Adults generally do not eat, but may sip nectar or maple sap as a secondary source of moisture.   They live only a few weeks finding a mate and laying eggs  before they die.

Glowworm by Mike Skydive

Fireflies can be found in a wide variety of habitats including rivers, valleys, ponds, fields, marshes, forests, cities and urban areas.  There has been very little scientific study of firefly population characteristics, and we are just starting to accumulate this data.  Therefore, little is known as to whether they are declining, but there is anecdotal data to suggest that there were many more fireflies thirty to fifty years ago.  It is known that 3/4 of all species are active only at night.  Species in our area can be affected by habitat loss, herbicide use, and artificial night light which can obscure firefly communication and adversely affect breeding success rates.

United States of America at night, NASA image, 2012

It is fun and entertaining to be out on a quiet evening and enjoy the light displays being put on by these small insects.  You can help keep their populations strong in several ways.  Retention of leaf litter and logs, especially rotting wood, in forested or other areas will provide spaces for egg laying and larvae to live.  Consider reducing outdoor lighting at night including garage and walkway lights and buildings with all night lighting.  The use of motion detectors on timed circuits so lights are only on for a limited amount of time will greatly cut down on the amount of light present at night.  We hope you get out to see these wonderful gems, but remember if you are out looking for fireflies that flashlights, cell phones and camera flash units are all forms of artificial light that are best avoided to enhance your outdoor viewing experience.

Snake Monitoring

Some days I spend hours grabbing snakes!  As a snake monitor, I am one of several stewards in this area leading groups that monitor snakes.  Our goals are to learn what species live here, their population size, and what areas they inhabit.  We are using this data, as well as other related information, to assist in making habitat management decisions. 

Capturing a garter snake, by DonArnold

Wildlife monitoring activities for any species are designed based on prior knowledge of when and where a species may be found and what kinds of activities we might observe. For snakes, we identify possible sites based on several factors: being away from human activities, having access to food, water, and shelter for overnight and bad weather.  We set out numerous snake boards. A snake board is a piece of rubber, wood or metal approximately two square feet in size and heavy enough that it will not be moved by wind or animals.  A line of these are laid out in the observation area, about one every 8-10 yards.  I use three boards at each of my dozen or so sites, but there can be 1 to many used. 

Storeria dekayi, Midland Brown Snake by Janice Sommer, 2018

Snakes are ectotherms, meaning they must obtain heat from their surroundings.  Snakes require heat to perform any action including moving, hunting and digestion.  Snake boards are generally placed in sunny areas.  This creates a spot where a snake can spend a few safe and sheltered hours absorbing heat that will allow them to hunt, eat and digest a meal.  When they are warm enough, they will leave the board area, complete their hunting or other movements.  They usually spend the night under rocks or logs in a close-by and safe place and return again the next day.

Snake Monitoring Entry

Monitors usually work in pairs.  When we visit a site, we will record date, time, and weather conditions.  One monitor lifts the board and both monitors capture any snakes that are present, placing them into a soft, cloth bag.  As each snake is removed from the bag, we record the species, weight, length and any identifying marks.

Several pictures are taken of each one, and then they are released.  They usually disappear quickly into the underbrush, but may not go far and may return to the board after we are gone.  Observations are made at least weekly, and are varied by time of day or weather conditions in order to have data across a wide spectrum of factors.

We have a wide variety of questions, and we are always adding more to the list.  Identifying what data to collect to provide answers, helps determine and refine our procedures.  Questions range from statistical to curious such as what snakes do we find in DuPage County, where do they live, what do they eat, can they swim, what restoration activities affect them and how, what management practices need to take them into consideration.  Collected data is used by scientists, teachers and stewards as we learn more about our own environment and how to manage its health.

Cicadas In Song

We are hearing a lot of buzzing in our backyards right now.  The sound is coming from one of the loudest insects found anywhere in the world, cicadas.  Cicadas are members of the family Cicadidae, and are they close relatives of leafhoppers.  Sometimes misnamed as locusts, cicadas are non-jumping insects not at all related to either locusts nor grasshoppers.  There are over 150 species of cicadas in the U.S., with about 12 occurring here in northeastern Illinois.  The cicadas we see and hear are all adults; some are species that we see every year, and some are species known as “periodic species” that only appear every thirteen or seventeen years.

Adult cicada by Karly Tumminello

Species seen each year usually live underground for two to four years with some portion of the population emerging every year as adults.  Periodic species will live either 13 or 17 years underground and all of the population will emerge together in one year.  After emergence, adults go through one final molt to climb out of their old skin, pump blood into their wings and then let the wings dry and harden.

Cicada final molt by Karly Tumminello

During this time, we may see hundreds of empty skins hanging from plants only to fall off and decompose.  Adults will then mate, lay eggs, and die.  Eggs are placed in holes or slots cut into tree limbs by the adult female.  They hatch after a few weeks, and the young crawl to the edge of the branch and drop off into the soil below.  They burrow their way underground and attach themselves to tree roots, where they will live until adulthood by sucking on tree sap.  A large population of individual cicadas living in a specific location is called a brood.  Twelve different broods of 17-year cicada species and three broods of 13-year cicada species have been identified throughout the eastern half of the United States.  In addition to a unique location, each brood emerges in a different year. 

Cicada cases by Karly Tumminello

Each species of cicada has its own distinct song, but all cicadas create their sound from a unique pair of organs called tymbals.  They are located on either side of the abdomen and consist of a membrane stretched across ribs.  As muscles contract, each rib buckles against the membrane with a snap.  A special air sac located in the same area amplifies the sound.  A cicada can perform this action several hundred times per second, and the resulting sound is a loud buzzing that can be heard for long distances. 

Periodical cicada mating by James L. Occi, Westfield, NJ

Cicadas are daytime singers and each species sings in a particular portion of each day.  In most species, only the males sing, and they start with a calling song, trying to attract a female.  When an interested female comes close, she will signal her presence with a snap of her wings.  Once the male hears her, he will change his song to a courtship tune that attracts her further and has her snapping her wings more vigorously.  This helps to guide the male to her and after locating her he will sing a third tune, a mating song.  

I encourage you to listen for the different songs sung by the male throughout the courtship proceedings as well as different songs from the three to four species currently active in this area. 

Bee-ginning B’s

Bees are some of our most prolific pollinator species.  In fact, there are over 4,000 species of bees in North America.  Some of these can be observed in your own backyard.  Bees have four wings, two long antennae, a thick-set body, eyes on the sides of their heads, and hair on the belly and rear legs for collecting pollen.  Not all of the flying insects we see among the flowers are bees; some are wasps.  They can be distinguished from bees by their skinny bodies with narrow waists, with no hair on their body or legs.  Others are flies; they have two wings, short antennae, no pollen-collecting hairs on bodies or legs and eyes that are situated on top of their heads.

Black Wasp by Titi94
Fly by Sven Lachmann

Bees typically live for only one year, although some species in our area, including honeybees and bumblebees may live longer.  A majority of their lifetime is spent inside a hive or nest growing from an egg to a larva to a pupa to an adult.  The bees that we observe in our gardens are the adult stage which typically lasts for several weeks. 

Most bee species in North America are solitary: the females live alone, building their own nest, laying eggs, and providing food for their offspring’s development over the winter.  The adults do not survive to see their offspring born.  Other species, including honeybees and bumblebees, are social species.  These bees live together in one nest and share all nest maintenance and parenting duties.  In social colonies, especially those that are human managed, adult bees may live quite a bit longer.

Panurginae family Bumblebee with full pollen sacs by DonArnold

All bees collect pollen from flowers, and they have developed several unique adaptations for this process.  Stiff hairs or hairs tipped with hooks on all parts of the body will collect the pollen when it is brushed against as the bee visits each flower.  The bee will move the pollen into the hairs along the lower abdomen and hind legs for transport back to the nest.  Bees also eat nectar from the flowers.  Adults eat a lot of nectar and a little pollen, but they bring some of both back to the nest.  A food packet consisting of a little nectar and a lot of pollen is placed with each egg to feed the developing offspring. 

Brown-belted Bumblebee, Bombus griseocollis by Becky Donaldson

When a bee carrying pollen visits a flower looking for nectar and pollen, the bee must push past the stigma and through the anthers to get to the nectar found at the base of most flowers.  The bee will collect more pollen from the anthers.  But the stigma has sticky surfaces that will pull some of the pollen off the bee as it passes, and this will be used by the flower in its reproductive cycle. 

Many fruits and vegetables we enjoy, as well as several beverages, all come from plants pollinated by bees.  More than 70% of flowering plants are insect pollinated, and bees comprise a majority of those insects.  Bees are struggling, though, and populations are in decline.  Reasons include habitat fragmentation, an increased use of pesticides, and new diseases in bee populations.  A majority of bees nest underground, and these habitats are becoming harder to find as we develop and pave over more places.  Bees require many large groupings of flowers, a habitat also being lost to development.  The latest farming practices often leave a monoculture of only one crop covering immense areas.  Supporting backyard gardens and community development of both flower and food gardens will help to replace some of this lost habitat.

Pollinator Garden

Our pollinator garden is filling in rapidly with the warmer temperatures and ample amounts of rain we are experiencing.  Many species in our area, including bees, wasps, flies, ants and hummingbirds are pollinators providing plant species with the essential service of moving pollen from one flower to another for fertilization.  Many popular native species are found in our garden; let’s take a look at a few of the ones now in bloom.

Golden Alexanders, Zizia aurea by DonArnold
Mining Bee on Golden Alexander, © Heather Holm, 2015.

Golden Alexanders, Zizia aurea, is found in a variety of natural environments from open woodlands to prairies to fens.  This member of the parsley family is visited by Pearl Crescent butterflies, Phyciodes tharos, and Spotted Thyris moths, Thyris maculata,  especially where these insects find other food species including Clematis and Houstonia.  Mining bees, small in size and emerging in early spring, are the primary pollinator, picking up pollen on the hairs of their upper legs as they feed on the flowers.

Virginia Waterleaf, Hydrophyllum virginiatum by DonArnold

Another favorite pollen source for bees is Virginia Waterleaf, Hydrophyllum virginianum. With its white to pale violet flowers and leaves that look like they are stained from water; this plant’s nectar also attracts the Red Admiral butterfly, Vanessa atalanta, and a few species of beetles. The stamens on this flower extend well past the petals making it difficult for small, short-tongued insects to get close enough to the flower tube to obtain nectar.  Bumble bees, one of the primary pollinators feeding on the nectar,  use their larger bodies to push past the stamens picking up pollen to transfer from one flower to another.

Woodland phlox, Phlox divaricata by Joshua Mayer, 2010

Woodland Phlox, Phlox divaricata, also known as Wild Blue Phlox, is often found in open woodlands.  This flower is attractive for pollinator gardens due to its blue flowers and good growth in partially shaded areas.  Pollinators include many butterfly and moth species with long tongues that can reach deep into the long flower tube for the nectar at the base. As the butterfly feeds, its proboscis (tongue) contacts the stamens to pick up pollen which is transferred to the next flower.

Jacob’s Ladder, Ploemonium reptans by DonArnold

Another flower in the blue spectrum is Jacob’s Ladder, Polemonium reptans.  This species does well in partial shade or a moist area in full sun.  The flowers are visited by bees, flies and beetles.  Large bees are the best pollinators as they collect pollen on their heads and thoraxes when pushing through the stamens to get to the nectar at the base of the petals. Previously collected pollen brushes off on subsequently visited flowers.

American Toad

As you are out walking at this time of year, whether in neighborhoods or natural areas, you may hear a musical trilling in the background.  This is the call of Bufo americanus, the American Toad, as it returns to the banks of local streams and ponds.  Male toads emit a high pitched trill that may last 30 seconds or more, as they actively seeking mates for breeding.  They call constantly during the daytime and early evening, and are often heard as part of the background sounds of the neighborhood.

American Toad, Tanya Dewey, Animal Diversity Web

The American Toad has a compact body with dry, warty yellowish-brown backs and sides.  They have short hind legs that allow them to walk or hop, but not take long leaps as do frogs. Adults are typically 2″ to 4″ with the females slightly larger than the males, but larger sizes up to 7″ have been observed in some localized areas.  These toads are found from the Mississippi River to the East Coast and from middle Canada to southern Georgia.

As in all frog and toad species, only the males call, hoping to attract a female by song alone.  American Toads like shallow, quiet waters with scant to moderate amounts of fully to partially submerged vegetation.  The male will select a stationary position in a desirable habitat, call, and after a female joins him, they will mate.  The female then lays her eggs in the water.  Breeding is often initiated by rainy days and warm evening temperatures.  A female will deposit between 2,000 and 20,000 eggs contained in two gelatinous strings of mucus several inches under the water’s surface and they may be attached to nearby vegetation. 

American Toad eggs by Judy Gallagher

Eggs hatch in 2 to 14 days depending on water conditions.  Tadpoles are black in color, and they will change into tiny toadlets in six to ten weeks.  Large groups of toadlets can be observed leaving the ponds for the open woodlands, prairies, marshes and your backyard.  The American Toad reaches sexual maturity in two to three years and may live ten years, although mortality from predators and human impact is high.

At this time of year, you may observe toads in your own backyard.  If you try to sneak up on a toad, especially in the evening, it will immediately stop calling if it hears you.  However, if you wait quietly at the edge of a pond for four to five minutes, the toads in the area will resume their singing.  Species are distinguishable by their song, and you can hear the different songs including the American Toad at the Illinois Natural History website: INHS Frog & Toad Calls.

If you should find a toad, see if you can observe some of the unique characteristics of these animals.  Do you see its ears?  They do not stick out from the head, as ours do.  Toads have a round patch positioned right behind their eye that is a tympanic membrane, able to detect and identify various sounds.  Can you observe it catching any prey?  Their tongues, which are long and sticky, are attached at the front of their mouths, not the back as ours are.  As insects fly by, a toad can flick its tongue out at an amazing speed to snare a meal.  You can watch this behaviors at Discovery News.

Hummingbirds

Ruby-throated hummingbirds are making their way back to Illinois for the summer.  There are about 325 known species of hummingbirds, all of which are found only in the Americas.  Most species live in tropical areas of South America and Latin America while 18 live in North America, and only the Ruby-throated hummingbird commonly occurs in Illinois. 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird Archilochus colubris, by jeffrey

Hummers are the smallest birds in the world, ranging in weight from 0.1 to 0.3 ounces.  Also setting them apart from other birds are their flight abilities.  Their wings make a unique figure-eight rotation, allowing these birds to feed on nectar while hovering in mid-air.  This allows the birds to fly forwards, backwards and sideways.  They can even fly upside down for a short way.  Birds that appear in summer here migrate south for the winter traveling up to 2000 miles including a 500 mile non-stop leg over the Gulf of Mexico!

Another feature is their beautiful iridescent colors.  Most species are metallic green on their backs, but chin and belly colors range from blue/green to violet, red and bright orange.  Ruby-throated hummingbirds display green backs, white bellies, and a black chin strap.  Only males display a red throat, which also may appear black or dark gray from certain angles. 

Ruby-throated Hummingbird Archilochus colubris by Joe Schneid, Louisville KY

Hummingbirds have long beaks and long tongues.  They typically feed on nectar found in the base of long tube-like flowers but they can also lap up small invertebrate prey.  Their tongue has many tiny grooves promoting capillary action that moves liquids up to the mouth with no sucking required.  Nectar is very watery with a low sugar content.  This allows liquids to move through the tongue grooves without clogging on sugar crystals.  Keeping this in mind when preparing feeder solutions for your own backyard feeder, a good solution is to mix four parts water to one part sugar; boil 30 seconds to make sure sugar dissolves; let cool before putting into feeder.  No food coloring should be used.

Another way to attract Humingbirds to your own backyard is to plant the flowers that they use for nectar.  Red flowers that grow in full sun are the best, whether in pots on your balcony or in a full garden bed.  A variety of flowers that bloom from spring through fall will provide food for their whole stay.  A few red flowering species include coral bells, scarlet salvia, fire pink, Cardinal flower, trumpet vine, columbine and common zinnia.  Blue and/or purple may also attract visitors including ‘Blue-Bird’ rose-of-Sharon, blue salvia and bee balm. 

Bats

Myotis lucifugus, little brown bat, Myotis septentrionalis, the Northern long-eared bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans, the silver-haired bat and Myotis sodalis, the Indiana bat are among some of the thirteen bat species native to Illinois.  All bats are in the order Chiroptera, and they are the only mammal that truly flies.  The order name means “hand wing” which aptly describes the wing which is composed of a thin membrane stretched over the four fingers of a bat’s hands.  The fingers can be spread when in flight or folded tightly together against their body when at rest.  The thumb protrudes from the end of the forearm as a small claw providing assistance when walking or climbing.  When flying, bats do not flap their wings as birds do, but move their wings in a circular “swimming” motion that provides not only lift, but great agility in the air.

Myotis sodalis, Indiana Bat, by USFWS Contributor Andrew King Public domain

Bats have small eyes and are thought to be able to see fairly well, but they use echo-location as a means of identifying insects or objects while in flight.  This process involves the bat emitting a series of supersonic squeaks through its mouth, 30-60 per second, and hearing the returning echo when the sound bounces off an object.  The complex ear can identify the direction, size, density and movement of the object.  While in flight, a bat can catch a flying insect with its open mouth.  Another method to eat-on-the-wing, especially when flying through clouds of insects, is to trap them in the folds of its wings.  Bats have the ability to scoop these insects out of each wing while still in flight, sometimes somersaulting in mid-air while eating.  A single bat consumes about 1000 insects an hour and will eat 6,000 – 8,000 mosquito-sized insects every night.

Bats spend most of their time “roosting”: resting or sleeping in a particular spot.  Males and females tend to roost separately except during breeding season in late fall.  Generally, they have two roost sites, one for daytime and another at night.  Since most species tend to feed during late evening or nighttime hours, the night roost is near the feeding areas.  This roost may be changed throughout the seasons as insect food groups tend to become more abundant at different sites. 

Myotis sodalis, Indiana Bat, by Justin Bruno

Life spans vary by species, but generally bats in our area live about 30 years.  Due to loss of habitat, widespread use of pesticides and herbicides, and direct persecution, bat species in Illinois have been declining for the past several years.  However, on warm summer evenings, especially over quiet ponds or streams, pay close attention to the air above you and enjoy the small acrobatic flyers taking advantage of the abundance of available insects.

Herons

It is bird migration season, and there are a great many birds returning from their wintering grounds farther south.  Two of my favorites are the Great Blue Heron, Ardea herodias and the Great Egret, Ardea alba.  These tall birds, 36″-48″ in height, can be seen in ponds, lakes and rivers where they are searching for their favorite foods: fish, crustaceans and small amphibians.  At this time of year, before the growing season has started, they can also be found in dry agricultural fields hunting for small mammals such as field mice.

Ardea alba, by Mykola Swarnyk

Th​​e long curved neck​ is a modification of one vertebrae ​that ​allows the neck to easily flex. In addition, muscles can pull the neck into a tight coil and spring the head and beak forward at incredible speed allowing the bird to quickly snatch a meal from the water.  Both of these species are stealthy hunters, moving slowly on long, slender legs through shallow water.  They may be seen moving their heads from side to side, crouching or standing upright, or pointing their bills straight down at the water.  All of these behaviors are thought to be used to reduce glare on the water surface and allow the birds to ​better ​see their prey.

Great Blue Heron, Ardea herodias, by DonArnold

Over the summer, these birds will find a mate and raise a family in our area.  Nesting usually takes place in colonies, large gatherings of birds that can number between a couple dozen to a few hundred birds.  Nests are usually built at the tops of tall trees standing in water.  This may be a defensive strategy against ground and climbing predators.  You can easily spot these nests sites in the early spring before the trees have leafed out.  Colonies of nests are called a rookeries, and there are many to be observed in our area.  A rookery that you may want to visit to learn more is at Lake Renwick Preserve in Plainfield.  Hours are limited, so please see their website at: https://www.reconnectwithnature.org/preserves-trails/visitor-centers/lake-renwick-heron-rookery-visitor-center

Other herons that are found in our area include the Black-crowned Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax and the Green Heron, Butorides virescens.  These smaller birds, typically 16″-24″ in height, can also be found foraging near open water, but are ​often seen in the early morning or early evening. ​Both species ​use bait such as insects, seeds, leaves or feathers as well as bread put out by people for ducks and other waterfowl, to attract fish to swim within their reach.

Black-crowned Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax, by DonArnold
Green Heron, Butorides virescens, by DonArnold

You should be able to observe these birds as you visit any area that includes shallow water containing fish or other small aquatic species.  They will be here until late autumn when ponds start to freeze over.  Heron and egret migration routes depend on continually finding open water for hunting, so winter feeding grounds may include much of Illinois​,​ depending upon our winter temperatures.

Naiad

At this time of year, creeks, rivers, marshes and ponds are filling with water from melting snow and spring rains.  Dragonflies and damselflies are two animal groups to watch for in these wetland areas.

Ebony jewelwing, by DonArnold

You may not see many of them flying around your backyard or local ponds yet.  The ones we love to watch flitting over the ponds and showing off their aerial skills are adults.  Each summer, males & females will mate and lay eggs in submerged plant stems, mud-banks, damp logs or directly into the water.  After two to six weeks, eggs will hatch into naiads (pronounced nay’-ed), sometimes called nymphs, and they will live in the ponds for several months to several years, depending on the species.

Dragonfly nymph, by Budak, 2015

A naiad is a formidable predator. The abdomen contains a set of openings through which the naiad can propel water at jet force pushing it through the pond at incredible speeds. The lower jaw of this insect is about one-third the length of the entire body.  When it is not eating, this jaw remains at rest under the head.  But when hunting, the lower jaw can shoot out to stab its prey.  All dragonflies are in the insect order Odanata, a Greek word meaning ‘tooth’.  An excellent short video can be found at A Baby Dragonfly’s Mouth Will Give You Nightmares | Deep Look

Naiads can be placed into three groups: ones that crawl, ones that climb or ones that burrow.  The crawlers have long legs, drab colors and move slowly along the bottom of ponds.  Climbing naiads can be found on dense vegetation in quiet ponds.  Burrowers can be found in muddy banks along faster flowing creeks and streams.

Try this activity to learn more: take a dip net or small container and scoop up some of the soft mud at the bottom of a pond.  Pour that out into a shallow, light colored tray.  Keep it shaded and wet, so any naiads are protected until you return them to the pond.  With a little luck, you should be able to spot one or two of them.  Can you identify their color?  Can you find their lower jaw and see how it moves?  Can you see the openings for water intake and jet propulsion along the back underside of the abdomen? 

Come back in the early morning or late afternoon of a summer day, when temperatures start to soar, to see if you can spot a naiad climbing out of the water onto plant stems or leaves and molt one final time to reveal its wings and fully formed adult body.

Check out these links to learn more about common dragonflies in Illinois: https://fieldguides.fieldmuseum.org/guides/guide/380

http://www.museum.state.il.us/ismdepts/zoology/odonata/

Garter Snakes

At this time of year, as soon as the daytime temperatures start to reach into the forties and above, we begin to see snakes coming out of their winter dens.  Two common snakes in DuPage County are both garter snakes, from the genus Thamnophis which includes 30 species worldwide. 

The Eastern Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis and the Plains Garter Snake, Thamnophis radix  spend the winter in underground dens containing several dozen to several hundreds of individuals.  Winter is a period of dormancy where these snakes enter brumation, an extreme slowing down of their metabolism. 

Eastern Garter Snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, by DonArnold

A garter can be up to 30″ long, black/brown backs, yellow stripes on their sides and a gray-green belly.  Usually found in meadows, light forests, marshes and vacant lots, they enjoy a warm spot such as open rocky/paved surfaces warmed by sunlight or hanging out in bushes or logs in the sun. Their meals include insects, earthworms, slugs and fish.  Nights are spent under logs, rocks or leaf litter protected from wind and rain.

There are a variety of methods used to study snake species, one of which involves using cover boards. Boards are approximately two square feet, made of plywood, aluminum siding or heavy rubber. These are placed in likely spots where snakes will be found. The snakes use the boards during the day for shelter, rest and warmth. When snakes are found under the boards we identify each snake, weigh and measure it, take lots of pictures and note any markings or injuries. We also record location, weather, time of day and any activity observed. Finding a variety of individuals helps to establish population numbers; finding the same individuals more than once helps to identify  whether snakes are moving to different locales during the year. 

Spring Wildflowers

We may not be able to tell exactly when winter ends and spring begins, but the plant community all around us has determined that the change has already happened for this year.  With the longer days and warming weather comes myriad changes in the plant community.  This is the chance for us to observe many species that come and go very quickly at this time of year.  These are the wildflowers of spring, and a few early ones to look for on your walks are listed below.

Dodecatheon meadia, Shooting Star by Sue

One of the more showy flowers is Shooting Star, Dodecatheon meadia.  A delicate pink, lilac or white bloom droops from a single tall stalk in the middle of a grouping of lance-shaped leaves.  The plant may stand from 6″ to 20″ high.  The flowers form a cone surrounding the stalk with lobes bent backwards.  This plant is pollinated by female bumble bees that collect the yellow powder-like pollen by vibrating the anthers with two or three short sonic bursts called buzz-pollination.  The place to observe all this activity includes brightly lit open woods and meadows.

Virginia Bluebells buds by Sue
Virginia Bluebells, Mertensia virginica by Sue

Virginia Bluebells, Mertensia virginica, may not be in full bloom, yet, but will soon be spectacular in their showiness.  They are found in rich, damp woodlands, many times along streams and rivers.  In many areas, they can be found growing in great swaths covering large areas of the forest floor in open woodlands.  Trumpet shaped flowers nodding from a long stalk are about an inch long, pink when young but turning to a beautiful, rich hue of blue. 

Dutchmans Breeches, Dicentra cucullaria by Sue

Dutchman’s Breeches, Dicentra cucullaria, is a common species found in open, dry woodlands.  The flower, in white or pink, appears as if someone is hanging out their trousers to dry. The green base of the plant is located far below the naked flower stalk and is composed of several fern like leaves.  This flower is mainly pollinated by bumblebees, who have a longer proboscis than honey bees, allowing them to tap the flower for its nectar.

Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis by Sue

Another showy but short-lived bloom in the woods at this time is Bloodroot, Sanguinaria canadensis, found in dry woodland areas.  Sanguine, an adjective for the color of blood, appropriately describes the juice derived from the plant.  A single leaf divided into five to nine deep round lobes clasps the flower stalk, wrapping around the base.  A single white flower rises 3″-6″ above the leaf.  The flowers contain no nectar, but attract a variety of female bees as well as the false blister beetle to collect pollen.

Spring Peepers

Spring Peeper – a lyrical name for a wonderful little singer in the woods at this time of year.  Most often heard in the late evening or through the night, these small frogs have some interesting traits.

Pseudacris crucifer, Spring Peeper by DonArnold

They are hard to find due to their small size, 20mm-25mm or .8″-1″ when fully grown.  A little large than an adult’s thumbnail!  And their coloration provides wonderful camouflage from shades of brown, gray or olive skin.  The belly is cream or white, and the back is marked with a dark cross as well as darker bands marking the legs.

Spring Peepers are native to our area and can be found in marshy areas or light woods near freshwater ponds.  They are good climbers but prefer to stay near the ground, burrowing into leaf litter whenever it is available.  At this time of year, larger populations can be found near their preferred breeding habitat which is clear, clean freshwater ponds with no fish. 

Peepers breed in early spring time when males start to call for females in the early evening and on into early morning.  Only the males call.  And their call is a high pitched note which can be heard for several hundred yards in the woods.  And they are loud!  It is near impossible to have a conversation between two people when standing on the edge of a pond where a chorus of 8 or more of these tiny frogs are singing.  Click on the attached audio file to listen.

As you are out walking this spring, take a moment to stop by your favorite pond and listen closely for the sounds of spring.