Don – Page 4 – Discover-Nature

Seeds

Autumn is the time for many plant species to spread their seeds before dying or entering dormancy for the winter. Every seed is a potential new plant, but it is unable to move on its own. Seeds must rely on wind or water or animals or gravity. There are several ways that seeds leave the parent plant and move to new locations. These methods are described below including examples of plants that you can observe on your local walks in the coming weeks.

Jack-in-the-pulpit, Arisaema triphyllum by Don Arnold 2021

Seeds are contained inside the fruit of plants. The size, shape, texture and presence of special structures on both the fruit and the seed contribute to the method of travel. Some fruits travel on their own, carrying the seeds with, but many ripen while still on their host plants, then split open and allow the seeds to travel by themselves. Seed and fruit surfaces may contain spines, glues, fluffs or hooks that aid the seed in its travels.

Common dandelion seed, Taraxacum officinale by Patrick J Alexander

Black maple seeds, Acer nigrum by Steve Hurst, ARS Systematic Botany & Mycology Laboratory, PA

Wind can move seeds a short distance or many miles depending on the air speed and direction. Winged fruits containing one or more seeds are pulled down by gravity while being carried short distances by the wind. A childhood favorite, the “helicopters” from maple trees, recently fell. Others using the wind are lightweight fruits and seeds with a cotton-like, feathery plume attached that can travel great distances on windy days. Examples include fruits of the quaking aspen and seeds from milkweed, thistle, and dandelion. Small, extremely light seeds may be carried on their own by even a light breeze. Eastern prairie-fringed orchid and poppy seeds are dust-like in form, and are easily whisked away from flower heads by any air movement.

Bur oak acorn, Quercus macrocarpa, by Steve Hurst, ARS Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, Georgia

Animals, including humans, move many seeds, sometimes unknowingly and other times with a purpose. Some species of plants have an aril, a small food treat, attached to each seed. Insects will carry seeds back to their nests to eat the aril, but discard the seed. Ants move hundreds of yellow dog tooth violet and Jack-in-the-pulpit seeds every autumn. Many seeds are contained in fleshy fruit eaten by animals that later excrete the undigested seeds elsewhere. Fruits harvested by humans are moved indoors or to local farmers markets and grocery stores. How many of you have apples, strawberries and apricots at home? Nuts and acorns have a leathery covering containing one or more seeds and are often cached by birds and squirrels for the winter, then forgotten and left to germinate in spring. Many fruits are covered with barbs and hooks that attach to animal fur or human clothing as the plant is brushed against.

Ticktrefoil, Desmodium seed with barbs by Janet Tarbox, 2012

Sycamore seed, Platanus occidentalis by Amehare, 2006

Many plants that grow near water, including oceans, lakes, and rivers, grow corky fruits containing air spaces that allow the fruits to float and travel with the water currents. Sycamore and water lily are two examples. Coconut palm originated in the South Sea Islands, but can be found growing on most tropical shorelines around the world. One last travel method is used by explosive fruits that burst and shoot out their seeds for several feet in all directions. Look for spotted touch-me-not, lupine and plants in the bean and pea families.

Heirloom poppy seed, Papaver paeoniflorum by Don Arnold, 2021.

Big seeds often travel short distances and small seeds may travel far away. Round seeds move across the uneven terrain and flat-sided seeds stay wherever they initially land. If every seed fell beneath its parent plant, competition for resources would become fierce, and many plants would die. It is important that seeds can move about, finding suitable locations to grow over a wide area contributing to the natural diversity of habitats.

Acorns

As I am out walking at this time of year, whether in the woods or around the neighborhood, there is lots of crunching underfoot. Acorns are one of the larger seeds littering the paths. There are about 450 species of oak trees worldwide and almost 90 in the United States with 17 native to Illinois.

An acorn is a fruit and a nut and a seed. Among Illinois species of oak trees, acorns grow between 5/16″ and 1-1/8″ in diameter, although many larger ones up to 3″ in diameter can be found in other parts of the world. One quarter of the seed is covered in a cupule, a saucer shaped cup that may or may not be fringed around the edges. The leathery shell, called a nut, is a hard, dry pod that surrounds a fruit with a single seed inside. Oak trees are in the genus Quercus in the beech family, Fagaceae, and are split into two sub-genera, white oaks and red oaks. White oak acorns grow to maturity each autumn when they fall off the trees. Red oak acorns are produced yearly, but have a two year growth cycle before maturing and falling off the tree.

Mast is the accumulated fruit of trees and shrubs in forests, and acorns play an important part in oak-hickory dominated woods. They are large, easy to find and eat, and are rich in nutrients including protein, fats, and carbohydrates, plus the minerals calcium, phosphate and potassium and the vitamin niacin. White oak acorns are relatively sweet compared to the bitterness of red oak acorns. Both contain tannins, a compound that makes food taste bitter and may be toxic in large quantities. Animal species that eat red oak acorns typically cache them until water running over the cached nuts has leached out most of the tannin. Acorns in the Midwest are a favorite food for duck, turkey, quail, pheasant, squirrels, chipmunks, deer and bear.

White oak acorn, Quercus alba, by Steve Hurst, ARS Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, Georgia

Acorns have never been used for human food on a scale reaching other nut varieties, but can be used for a variety of recipes. In times of famine, they were a staple for Greek and Japanese cultures. Korean noodles have been made from acorn flour since the early 1600s, while Ersatz coffee was made from large quantities of acorns during the Civil War. Acorns, which contain starch, can be ground into flour for bread, pastries and pasta. But all acorns require some leaching, involving soaking in several baths of clean water, to remove the tannins. Hot-water leaching or boiling acorns can accomplish this in three to four passes, but it also removes the starch necessary to hold the resulting flour together. Cold-water leaching takes a few days, but yields a better flour for baking.

Acorns are large and oak trees must rely on animals to move their seed around. Scatter-hoarding is a behavior used by jays and squirrels that gather acorns and cache them for later consumption. If the animal does not remember where all of its caches are, or it should perish before consuming all of the stored food, the remaining acorns have a chance to sprout and grow. Every six to seven years, often referred to as mast years, oak trees will produce many times more than the usual number of acorns. Current theory suggests that this is an attempt by the trees to overwhelm the consumers and increase the acorns chances of sprouting. Take your favorite tree field guide and get out to a forest near you to see what acorns you can find and identify the trees that are nearby.

Autumn Grass

In autumn, we think about the spectacular colors of the changing foliage. Ornamental grasses found in prairies, gardens and woodland edges are also showing shades of red, tan, and gold. They are part of the foundation of native plant species that cover prairies, savannas and meadows throughout the greater Midwest, and they are an important component in restoration projects and backyard gardens.

Indian grass, Sorghastrum nutans, by Brett Whaley, 2017

Grasses are classified as either cool-season grasses, which green up in early spring and go dormant by early autumn, or warm-season grasses which start actively growing after the soil is warm, typically from June 1st through late autumn in northern Illinois. Six of the most common warm-season grasses native to this area include prairie dropseed, Sporobolus heterolepis, Northern sea oats, Chasmanthium latifolium, little bluestem, Schizachyrium scoparium, switchgrass, Panicum virgatum, Indian grass, Sorghastrum nutans, and big bluestem, Andropogon gerardii.

Northern sea oats, Chasmanthium latifolium, by Robert H Mohlenbrock, 1989 @ USDA NRCS Wetland Science Insititue

Big bluestem, Andropogon gerardii, by Matt Lavin, 2015

Indian grass seedheads, Sorghastrum nutans, by Joshua Mayer, 2014

All of these grasses are native to Illinois and exhibit several common characteristics. Flowers are small, with stamens and stigmas exposed to the air. They have no nectar, but produce large amounts of smooth, light pollen that is easily carried away by any air movement. These grasses prefer full sun, but may grow in bright shade. They like moist conditions in well-drained soil, and are tolerant of rocky soil and drought. All of these species spread by dropping seed and a few also send out long, densely packed, underground root systems.

Switchgrass seed, Panicum virgatum, by Matt Lavin, 2015

Switchgrass, Panicum virgatum, by Matt Lavin, 2009

Grasses provide sustenance for many species finding their food sources dwindling at this time of year. Grasses can be cultivated or found growing wild in areas where it is available to cattle, bison, and horses. The foliage is also favored by a large number of insects including grasshoppers, leafhoppers, aphids, thrips, katydids and walking sticks. Several species of skipper caterpillars can be found among meadow and woodland edge grasses. Along with the great quantities of seeds being produced, the insects serve as a food source for grassland bird species.

Prairie dropseed, Sporobolus heterolepis, by Joshua Mayer, 2015

Prairie dropseed displays pink and purple flowers in late summer with a faint odor of buttered popcorn. It is a long-lived plant but hard to propagate, which is normally accomplished by subdividing each of its tufts. Northern sea oats is easily grown and has become a favorite of gardeners, although it can become an aggressive spreader. It is often used in flower arrangements for the large, flat seeds and leaves. Little bluestem is a common grass of rocky and thin soil areas. It is widely used in both restorations and gardens for its drought resistance and its spectacular blue and red palette. Big bluestem has earned the nickname of “turkeyfoot” due to the way the mature seed heads display at the end of tall flower stalks. Indian grass also grows tall and straight and maintains that posture throughout winter’s cold and wet weather. It is used as cover by Ring-necked Pheasants, Greater Prairie Chickens, Northern Bobwhites, and Field Sparrows. Switchgrass, another species that stays upright when wet, also provides winter cover for prairie deer mouse and house mouse. It has been evaluated as a source of alcohol for use as an alternative fuel. More alcohol per acre is generated by switchgrass than corn, and it is a perennial, but it is bulkier than corn making shipping and storage more costly.

*Little bluestem, Schizachyrium scoparium, by Patrick Alexander, 2011*

Native grasses are an integral part of the landscape of northern Illinois, providing food, shelter, and protection for many birds, insects, and mammals in autumn and through winter. With airy flower stalks, tall waving leaves, and striking colors of red, bronze, and gold, grasses add visual interest into every landscape.

Northern sea oats, Chasmanthium latifolium, by Scott Zona, 2021

Crickets

Nighttime brings out animals that are nocturnally active or that may simply be more noticeable during night hours. Rarely seen, but heard widely throughout the night, members of the cricket family, Gryllidae, may call at all hours of the day, or sing only during the night. Crickets are in the order Orthoptera, distinguished by having two pairs of wings, long, segmented antennae, chewing mouthparts, and the ability to sing by rubbing one body part against another.

Field cricket, Gryllus pennsylvanicus, by Mr.TinDC, Sandy Point, 2010

There are six groups of crickets found in Illinois encompassing many species. Field crickets are small, up to an inch long, black or dark red, and live in undergrowth that provides protection from wind and cold. Found across all of North America, adults and young cannot survive freezing temperatures and whole populations die off in the northern part of their range each year, while southern populations may produce multiple generations. Eggs are laid singly, in the soil in autumn, and a new generation hatches the following spring. A second group, house crickets, are not native to North America, and also cannot survive winter. Imported for many years as fishing bait and pet food, many escape to live and reproduce indoors. Females emit a chemical repellant to other females that encourage them to start new families elsewhere.

House cricket, Acheta domestica, by Gail Hampshire, 2010

Two additional groups, bush crickets and tree crickets, are common throughout the United States. Residing in trees, shrubs, and other vegetation, they are excellent singers. Females, locating a male to mate with by his song, nudge the male to interrupt his singing and they mate. The female punches a series of pin-like holes in thin bark, filling each with mucus and one egg, then plugs holes with chewed bark. The pattern of holes can be used to determine the species. Eggs overwinter under the bark, hatching in spring. Nymphs grow into adulthood by mid-summer. The last two groups include mole crickets that are strong flyers, but spend most of their lives underground, and camel crickets with short, wingless, hump-backed bodies.

Crickets, like grasshoppers, have a sharp edge called a scraper on one forewing that rubs against a bumpy ridge, called a file, on the underside of the other forewing. The song produced can be a chirp or a rapid trilling which is more musical than the grasshopper’s rasp and buzz. A cricket’s wings are long and tough. They are generally used for protection and flight, and are always used for singing. In addition to flight, crickets are jumping insects. They have three pairs of legs attached to the thorax. The first two are small, but the hind legs have enlarged, muscular thighs and rigid lower legs, with a knee joint designed to provide the ability to jump long distances.

Snowy tree cricket, Oecanthus fultoni, by Mark Yokoyama, 2015

Cricket songs are directly affected by temperature. As temperatures decrease, individuals will sing more slowly. For crickets, the pitch also decreases. Field crickets sing a series of chirps, and the outside temperature can be calculated from their song by applying Dolbear’s Law, named after A.E. Dolbear, who quantified the formula in 1897. Take the number of chirps per minute, subtract 40 and divide the result by four. Add fifty to get the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, accurate to within one degree. Collecting crickets for their songs is a pastime in China and Japan where artisans have created beautifully decorated, hand-crafted cages for the past one thousand years. Tonight, after dark, take a stroll outside to hear the wonderful chorus in your neighborhood.

Silphiums

In the late summer, there are lots of bright colored flowers to see, and among the showiest of these are the four silphium species. Including compass plant, Silphium laciniatum, prairie dock, Silphium terebinthinaceum, cup plant, Silphium perfoliatum, and rosinweed, Silphium integrifolium, they stand tall with bright yellow daisy-like flowers that wave in the breeze. The name silphium comes from Greek meaning a resinous plant. The four plants we will look at today are found in a variety of habitats, and are all easily grown in our gardens.

Silphium perfoliatum, cup plant by Kerry Woods, 2007

Silphium perfoliatum, cup plant by Scott Zona, 2005

The cup plant likes sun and moist soil and can be found along stream and river edges, as well as in open woodlands and savannas. It is 4′-10′ tall, with a single, four-sided stem that only branches for the multiple flowers it supports. Leaves are opposite, about 4″x 8″ and join together on one side around the stem, forming a cup-like structure capable of holding water. Cup plants grow in large colonies providing an area for birds to rest out of the hot sun while searching for insects among the foliage and having drinking water readily available in the cups.

Silphium terebinthinaceum, prairie dock by Joshua Mayer, 2010

Silphium terebinthinaceum, prairie dock by Scott Zona, 2019

Prairie dock is found in wet or dry savannas. It has a vase-like cluster of leaves at the base of the plant with flowers on naked stalks from 3′-10′ high. A stout taproot extending nearly 12′ deep supports the plant. They prefer full sun and moist soil, but can tolerate drought well. Prairie dock often displays large, glossy black blotches on its foliage. These are formed by leaf beetles that lay their eggs on the leaf and cover them with a sticky substance that dries to a hard shell for protection. After the eggs hatch, the larvae will eat the leaf underneath while protected from above.

Silphium laciniatum, compass plant by Joshua Mayer

The compass plant, another species with a long taproot, grows 6′-12′ tall with leaves along the whole stem that gradually get smaller towards the top. A mature plant can live over 100 years, exhibiting up to 30 flowers in late summer for about six weeks. Young compass plants will align their leaves from north to south so they receive the cooler morning and evening sunlight. As early settlers crossed the prairie, they tended to use the alignment of the leaves for finding their way. However, older plants do not turn their leaves as readily, much to the woe of many wayfarers.

Silphium integrifolium, rosinweed by Frank Mayfield, 2006

Rosinweed has the shortest stature, standing 3′-5′ tall with a stout, central stem that branches at the base of the flowers. This is the only one of the four with a fragrant scent from the flower. Although it grows in sizable clumps, it is not an aggressive spreader from underground roots. Most clumps are composed of individual plants. The seeds are a favorite of goldfinch.

Silphium perfoliatum, Cup plant by Steve Hurst, ARS Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, NJ, USDA-NRCS Plant Database

All of the silphiums are similar in appearance, with yellow flowers growing on tall stalks. They bloom in mid to late summer for four to six weeks. They are easy to maintain and resistant to drought, but may have a tendency to topple over when planted on slopes exposed to heavy wind. All are native to Illinois. Their foliage is rarely consumed by small mammals due to its coarse texture, but may be eaten by larger herbivores, including cattle. The disk florets, inner part of the flower, are sterile, while the ray florets, outer parts, are fertile. This is the exact opposite characteristic of that found in sunflowers.

Silphiums are a favorite of pollinator species including honeybees, bumblebees, miner bees, and ruby-throated hummingbirds. The flat, dark brown seeds are especially favored by goldfinch. Consider adding one or two of these plants to your garden for a bright background display.

Dead Trees

Trees offer a variety of services for wildlife, whether they are in a forest, a city park, or in your backyard. Trees grow slowly and die slowly. Each year, they flower, leaf out, and grow fruit throughout the spring and summer and then drop leaves and fruit each autumn. Often, one, two or more branches will die each year, even as new ones are being added. As each part of a tree dies, habitat is not lost; it is transformed into use for a variety of wildlife.

White oak snag by Frank D. Laspalluto, 2021

A hole in a tree can be created by a variety of events: branches broken off by weather or animals, trees being impaled by other trees during violent storms, or punctures or cuttings from human activities. Openings offer nesting sites for owls and flying squirrels. Bark at the lip of a hole will start to peel away allowing bats and spring peepers to get underneath for shelter. Small holes invite insects in, and woodpeckers searching for insect prey enlarge the holes. When a cavity becomes large enough to kill the entire tree, it is often used by tree swallows for nesting or as a great place for honeybees to build hives.

Red-shouldered hawk couple in the early morning light at the Venice Rookery, Venice, Florida, Lookout post by Diana Robinson, 2020

Snags are dead trees that remain standing. These offer birds of prey perches while they scan the areas underneath for small animals to hunt. After the snag becomes too weak to stand any longer and falls to the ground, it becomes shelter for numerous species. Mice and chipmunks use small holes to store food, raise young, and hibernate in for the winter. Large hollow logs offer a home for skunks and bobcats. Accumulated bark and leaf litter is a favorite place for toads and black rat snakes looking for a place to lay eggs. Shade provided under fallen logs promotes a damp environment, a favorite place for salamanders.

As wood starts to decay, decomposers move in. Fungi begins the process by breaking down the bark and returning the nutrients to the soil. Millipedes, termites, beetles, and ants all feed on rotting, decaying wood. Opossum, raccoon, robins and nuthatch find a treasure of insects and arthropods to feed on. Earthworms and grubs help to mix all of the droppings around the fallen log into the soil through their tunnel building activities, constantly enriching the soil.

Shelter for two by Lars-Goran Hedstrom, 2015

Dead trees are an important part of a forest ecosystem and can play a beneficial role in any habitat. Consider leaving branches where they drop, or artfully placing them into your own garden habitats. They provide shelter and food for many organisms, creating a rich and diverse community. Species that directly use the wood provide food for small organisms as they break down the wood and are prey themselves for larger animals. They release the nutrients trapped in the wood and enrich the soil in the process. They create shelter by opening new holes and enlarging existing ones for additional plants and animals to occupy. Next time you are out walking, gently turn over a log, and observe this wonderfully changing habitat.

Opossums

A marsupial is a mammal with young that are born not fully developed and are subsequently carried in a pouch on the abdomen of the mother where the young can attach to a teat and complete their development. The most well-known animals in this group are kangaroos, but we also have one species in Illinois, the Virginia opossum, Didelphis virginiana. The opossum is native to Illinois and is common in all parts of the state. The oldest remains found in Illinois date back 100,000 years ago, while worldwide, opossums are one of the oldest known mammals, with remains dating back about 20 million years ago to the Miocene period.

Virginia opossum, Didelphis virginiana by Phil Myers, UMAA 2008

An adult opossum has coarse gray hair covering its body with white facial hair and a long, pointed snout with a pink nose. They are about the size of a house cat with hairless ears and a one to two foot long hairless tail. Their tails are prehensile, adapted for seizing, grasping, or holding, and used for balancing and climbing. The hind feet have no claws, but do have an opposable toe used for climbing and grasping. They can appear fearsome when baring their teeth, having fifty of them, more than any other land mammal. They live in urban or edge habitats, finding shelter in old dens, rock crevices, hollow logs, and under wood or stone foundations.

Virginia opossum female with babies using tail for support, Didelphis virginiana by Dawn Pedersen, California Academy of Sciences SF

Females give birth to one or two litters each year, the first in mid-winter and a possible second litter in early spring. Young are born about two weeks after fertilization. A newborn, the size of a bumblebee, must crawl to the mother’s pouch where it will attach to a nipple and stay attached for two to three months to complete its development. Up to twenty young, called joeys, are born in each litter, but the female adult only has 13 teats and the remainder of the young do not survive. Young are weaned at about three months. Usually nocturnal and solitary animals, young will often strike out on their own but may return to the family group for the winter.

Virginia opossum adult, Didelphis virginiana by Phil Myers, UMAA

Opossum are omnivores eating a wide variety of food including fruit, grain, seeds, pet food, garbage, carrion, eggs, insects, frogs and other small animals. Ticks, found on many Illinois mammals, are a favorite food item. It is estimated that an adult opossum consumes several thousand annually. Opossum are scavengers, seed dispersers, and a control for small mammal and insect populations. In turn, they are prey for larger birds and mammals.

Virginia opossum juvenile, Didelphis virginiana by Lisa Wright 2007

When threatened, an opossum may respond by hissing, growling, baring its teeth, or playing dead. Playing dead, an autonomic response, occurs when the opossum faints. They lay on the ground with lips drawn back, teeth bared, eyes half or fully closed, saliva drooling, and a foul-smelling liquid excreted from their anal gland. Individuals can be poked, turned over or picked up and carried away with no response. They will recover by slowly regaining consciousness after several minutes or up to four hours. In the wild, their average life span is two years, and the leading cause of death is being hit by a vehicle.

Virginia opossum tail, Didelphis virginiana by Lisa Wright 2007

Opossum are protected under Illinois law as a furbearer. Hunting licenses are available each year with no limits. Permits may also be issued for nuisance animals that may be trapped for removal to another area. Adults are often infested with parasites, but carry none that are known to affect humans. They are rarely encountered or seen, but you may be able to observe them in the evening, especially under bird feeders or where pet food is left outside.

Dangerous Plants

It’s summer and a wonderful time for hiking in fields and forests, observing the plants and animals that live here. But as you are out enjoying nature, there are dangerous plants to be aware of. Some species can also be found in backyard gardens where they may pose a hazard to people and pets. Here are three to avoid.

Poison hemlock, Conium maculatum by William & Wilma Follette, 1992 USDA NRCS

Poison hemlock umbrel, Conium maculatum by Doug Goldman, 2011 USDA NRCS

Poison hemlock stem, Conium maculatum by Doug Goldman, 2011 USDA NRCS

Poison hemlock, Conium maculatum, is native to Europe and North Africa but is widely distributed in North America. The plant can grow to 12′ tall on a hollow, hairy stem, green with dark maroon spots. Flowers form a small, loose, white cluster often mistaken for Queen Anne’s Lace. All parts of the plant, especially the seeds and roots, contain a poisonous alkaloid oil called coniine. When ingested, the oil works as an inhibitor directly on the central nervous system which may lead to failure of the respiratory muscles and death. Eating six to eight leaves may prove fatal for humans. If the oil comes in contact with skin exposed to direct sunlight, a phytophotodermatitis reaction occurs causing severe burns of the area.

Deadly nightshade fruit, Atropa belladonna,
by Peganum 2009

Deadly nightshade, Atropa belladonna, by Joan Simon 2014

Deadly nightshade, Atropa belladonna, another plant introduced to the U.S., has a long history of use in medicine, cosmetics and as a toxin. Plants grow to seven feet tall with purple and green, lightly scented, bell-shaped flowers. All parts of the plant, but most especially the root, contain tropane alkaloids having anticholinergic properties inhibiting the involuntary muscle movements the body depends on for functions including sweating, breathing, and heart rate. The berries are attractive, dark red, cherry-like and sweet tasting. Consumption of 2-5 berries by children and 10-20 berries by adults can be fatal. Only cattle and rabbits seem to have no reaction to the plant’s poison.

Giant hogweed, Heracleum mantegazzianum, a member of the carrot family, is native to Eurasia and was introduced to the U.S. as an ornamental in the late 19th century. This plant typically grows 6′ to 18′ tall with 3′-5′ diameter, deeply-lobed leaves. Stems are bright green with purple splashes and coarse white hairs. Greenish-white flowers, similar to Queen Anne’s Lace produce 10,000 to 50,000 half-inch long seeds per plant. Like poison hemlock, the sap causes a phytophotodermatitis reaction when in contact with skin subsequently exposed to the sun’s UV rays. Initial reactions may be mild including red, itchy skin developing into more severe blisters and burns after 24-48 hours. Scars last several years, and hospitalization for burn treatment is not uncommon.

Poison hemlock, Conium maculatum by Doug Goldman, 2012 USDA NRCS

All three species are considered weeds, found in fields and along forest edges, and may not be actively controlled or removed resulting in widespread distribution. Recently, poison hemlock has become a serious backyard problem in Ohio and Indiana where plants have been spreading rapidly. Causes for the spread are not clear, but the trend is continuing to move westward. Enjoy your nature viewing, but be aware of the plants around you and the secrets they may hold.

Ladybugs

Lady beetles, popularly known as ladybugs, are a beloved and diverse group of insects found in many backyard gardens. Oval to round in shape with a head that is partially covered by the pronotum, the plate covering the thorax, they come in a variety of colors, with or without spots. Identification is made based on spot shapes and patterns. There are about 500 species living in the U.S., most of which are predatory, which makes gardeners love them. Many species have long, slender larvae with dark, spiny bodies that are also predators of garden pests.

Lady beetle aggregation by Richard Droker

Female ladybugs produce upwards of 1000 eggs laid in batches, several times over a period in late spring and early summer. Eggs hatch in five to eight days, and larvae pupate to adulthood in three to seven weeks. Their one-year life span takes them through winter hibernation under logs, buildings, and snow drifts, and in many houses. Gathering in large groups of several hundred to several million, ladybugs can survive up to nine months of cold temperatures, living off fat reserves. They over-winter near their food sources and wake in spring when temperatures reach above 55˚F/13˚C.

Ladybugs live in a variety of habitats, wherever aphids can be found, including forest, meadow, marsh, prairie and backyard gardens. Feeding on soft-bodied insects, they provide natural pest control, especially in our gardens. Both adults and larvae can consume several dozen insects daily. Primary prey include aphids, spider mites, thrips, scale, insect eggs, and small insect larvae. Ladybugs are also considered important for pest control in agricultural areas. About 3,000 ladybugs can protect an acre of fruit trees or other crops.

14-spot Ladybird beetle, Propylea quatuordecimpunctata by Will George

Several non-native species can be found throughout the U.S. Most have been brought here as part of a biological control effort, but they can negatively affect native populations by outcompeting them for food. Several of these introduced species are now considered to be serious pests, especially when inadvertently collected along with grapes for wine production, giving the finished product a sour flavor.

14-spot Ladybird beetle, Propylea_quatuordecimpunctata_larva by Gilles San Martin

In early spring, before aphids hatch, several ladybug species located in the northern U.S. depend on pollen for up to half of their diet. Providing early-flowering species containing a high pollen load can be very beneficial. Several plants can be added to your garden that will help fulfill this need for ladybugs and other local pollinators including heather, red-flowering currant, grape hyacinth, and dandelion.

Convergent Lady-beetle, Hippodamia convergens by Astrid von Wesenbeeck

Ladybugs are considered omens of good luck all over the world. Four of them were carried into space on one of the shuttle missions to test the effects of zero gravity on insects. Results indicate they have no trouble capturing their prey without gravity. They are the official state insect in Delaware, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Ohio and Tennessee. Check out your backyard or nearby gardens to see these tiny natural wonders in action.

Field Guides

Field guides are special books. Lots of them fit in your pocket and can be used out in the field to identify particular plants or animals. Field guides come in several formats, and address aspects of nature using differing methods. Let’s take a look at a selection of these and how we might use them.

Traditional field guides contain a list of all the species within a class such as mammals, birds, or insects. If the class is very large, a guide may only contain species from one or more orders. There are thousands of species of insects, but this class can be broken down into many manageable orders such as bees, dragonflies, beetles, and more. Guides provide information on names, field marks, range maps, habitat, food, reproduction, predation and impacts from/to humans. The arrangement of information within a field guide can be based on one or more identifying characteristics such as color, field marks, taxonomy, habitat, or a unique feature, i.e. number of petals. Many guides use a dichotomous key, an identification method that asks a series of questions and offers two choices for each answer, eventually leading to a single organism.

Guides by Geographic Region, by DonArnold

Several traditional field guides are issued as parts of series intended to cover a wide variety of life in specific geographic areas. General guides include Peterson’s Field Guides series; The Audubon Society series, and North Woods Naturalist series. Pocket-size field guides are limited to only a select group of species within a class or order, usually the most common ones that are likely to be found. Some that may be of interest include Birds of Illinois by Stan Tekiela; Kaufman Field Guide to Birds of North America, and the Golden Nature Guides. Other series take several books to cover only one class of animal. Examples of these guides include The Sibley Guides, Stokes Field Guides, and The Crossley Guides, all of which include multiple volumes about birds.

Nontraditional field guides teach us about nature by using a descriptive element applied to a group of species. Consider some of the following:

Guides by habitat – Peterson’s Eastern Forests; The Book of Field and Roadside by John Eastman; Discover Nature in Water & Wetlands by Elizabeth P. Lawlor
Guides by characteristic – Peterson’s Eastern Birds’ Nests; Pollinators of Native Plants by Heather Holm; Tracks & Signs of Insects and Other Invertebrates by Charley Eiseman and Noah Charney
Guides by geographic region – INHS Field Guide to Reptiles & Amphibians of Illinois; North Woods Naturalis Series; Trees of Illinois by Linda Kershaw; Flora of the Chicago Region by Gerould Wilhelm and Laura Rericha

The latest technology in field guides is to have information and search capabilities using an app on your phone or tablet that you can carry with you. Three of my favorites include Seek by iNaturalist for plant and animal identification; Merlin Bird ID by Cornell Lab of Ornithology for bird identification; and SkyView by Terminal Eleven for stargazing at night. All of these let you use the camera on your device to take a picture to identify the object or view. Follow-up questions are included to help refine your ID and provide you with additional information.

For those of you who like to keep it simple, consider making your own field guide. Start with a nature coloring book or a blank sketchpad. Do your own drawings, colorings, and field notes. This type of field guide accumulates extensive information over the years and becomes a treasured source for descriptions and notes on your own personal interaction with nature. Any way you choose to learn, get out and have fun today!

Grasshoppers

Grasshoppers, familiar insects of summer, are found all over the world with about 550 species native to North America. Grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids make up the insect order Orthoptera, characterized by hard, external skeletons, three pairs of jointed legs, three-part bodies, compound eyes and two antennae. Their mouths are used to shear vegetation and the palps on either side of the mouth are used for feeling and tasting. Tympanal organs are holes under the wings, at the base and sides of the abdomen and perform the same function as human ears. They have a leathery upper pair of wings that folds over to cover and protect a lower pair of wings. The back legs are large and muscular for jumping.

Differential Grasshopper, Melanoplus differentialis by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, UMAA

Grasshoppers are one of the many insects that use singing to attract a mate. The hind legs are used as a “bow”. A set of peg-like protrusions on the inside of the leg are drawn across a raised vein on the forewing making a rasping sound. This is called stridulation. Other species may use crepitation, the ability to make loud snapping noises with their wings while in flight. Although both males and females are capable singers, singing is all about staking territory and finding a mate, and males tend to be more vociferous. Grasshoppers are strictly daytime singers and get more vocal as daytime temperatures soar.

Mischievous Bird Grasshopper, Schistocerca damnifica by Judy Gallagher

In all singing insects, females will begin searching for a place to lay eggs immediately after mating. Breeding sites require undisturbed soil found in empty lots, roadsides and open fields. A female will push her ovipositor into the soil and secrete a frothy substance within which the eggs are suspended. This dries into an inch long plug containing two to a hundred eggs. Eggs remain underground over winter and hatch in spring. Nymphs are simply miniature adults, molting through five instar stages while they grow. Wings and sexual organs develop during this period. A large number of eggs are lost each year to soil disturbance and weather, especially flood conditions.

Red-legged Grasshopper, Melanoplus femurrubrum by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, UMAA

Spur-throated Grasshopper, Melanoplus ponderosus by Alfred Crabtree

Grasshoppers are a type of locust, a group of insects found in swarms that may be harmful to crop production, although this behavior is rare in Illinois. They are well adapted to urban environments, feeding mostly on a variety of grasses, but they may also eat leafy vegetables, beans, corn and ragweed. In agricultural fields their favorite foods include alfalfa, corn, barley, and wheat. A heavy infestation of 16-17 grasshoppers per square yard will consume one ton of leaves per day in a 40 acre field. Grasshoppers are particularly hard to control because of their great mobility, but, there are natural controls from predators including poultry, birds of prey, spiders and rodents to diseases caused by fungi, protozoa and nematodes.

Two-striped Grasshopper, Melanoplus bivittatus by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, UMAA

Observe a grasshopper while it is eating and notice the ragged, serrated edge left along the chewed area versus the smooth-edge cut from a caterpillar. When molting, they hang upside down from grass or twigs. The skin splits open along the back and the insect pushes outward to clear its wings and antenna first from the old casing. When moving through wet soil, hopping leaves two deep impressions from the rear legs with four much lighter impressions from the front toes and sometimes a line down the center where the abdomen may drag. Nymphs are able to move long distances by walking, while adults can fly miles at elevations of several hundred feet. Have some fun watching these interesting insects and their behaviors in your own backyard.

Fireflies

Lightning bugs are fireflies, but fireflies are not flies and lightning bugs are not true bugs. Fireflies are winged beetles in the Lampyridae family. The family is known for their ability to produce light from chemical reactions. There are about 2000 species worldwide, including almost 200 in North America, but only three species can be found in Illinois.

Photuris pennsylvanica, Pennsylvania firefly by Dann Thombs-2

Fireflies use their lights as signals to find mates. Preferring early summer’s warm and humid evenings, fireflies start to flash as soon as it is dark, and continue for several hours. Males fly a repetitive pattern in one area, flashing and watching for a return flash from a female lying in wait in the grass. Each species has a unique flash pattern determined by interval between flashes, flash color, number, rate, brightness, and how far the firefly travels between flashes.

Photinus pyralis, Big Dipper firefly by Terry Priest

The big dipper firefly, Photinus pyralis, has a black body, wings edged in bright yellow, a black and yellow belly, and the top of the head is yellow with a red patch and a black center dot. Big dipper gets its name from its signature flash, starting bright and dimming as it swoops in an upward “J” arc. The black firefly, Lucidota atra, has completely black wings, and a head topped in yellow with a large black center spot edged in red. Black fireflies can emit light, but unlike other fireflies that flash to find a mate, they use pheromones. The Pennsylvania firefly, Photuris pennsylvanica, is similar in appearance to the big dipper but only the outer edge of the wing is striped in dark orange. They emit a yellow-green glimmer every few seconds, but females may flash the signal of the big dipper to attract a male of that species. The female captures and eats the male to gain a steroid that naturally occurs in his body and makes the female taste bad to her main threat, jumping spiders.

Lucidota atra, Black firefly by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, UMAA

Flashes are the result of a chemical reaction in specialized cells, called photocytes, located in the abdomen. Oxygen is taken directly into these cells and combined with the chemical luciferin and an enzyme, luciferase. The light emitted is controlled by limiting the amount of oxygen. Fireflies produce cold light, one of the most energy efficient sources of light in nature. Over 99% of the reaction produces light vs. about 10% from an incandescent light bulb where the rest of the reaction is heat. In human medicine, luciferase, created from genetically engineered chemicals, is used to screen for tumors, blood diseases, and as a fast-acting detector of infection.

Photuris pennsylvanica, Pennsylvania firefly by Dann Thombs

Fireflies live for a little over a year. After mating, females will lay about 500 eggs. Adults will die soon afterwards. In about four weeks, the eggs will hatch and flat, worm-like larvae will spend the summer in moist areas under logs or leaf litter. They are nocturnal and prey on earthworms, caterpillars, and other soft-bodied invertebrates. As winter approaches, they will move to underground burrows and continue feeding until spring. Their sickle-shaped jaws inject a toxin that helps to liquify the insides of their prey, allowing the larvae to suck out the nutrients. Leaving their underground burrows in spring, they search for a mate and begin a new cycle.

Lucidota atra, Black firefly by Katja Schulz

Fireflies have been steadily declining over many years from habitat loss, pesticide use and light pollution. We can help by mowing the lawn less often or leaving the grass taller in places to provide a safe area. Leaving leaf litter or rotting wood in garden beds provides for eggs, larvae and prey. Avoiding pesticides, especially lawn applications, preserves healthy habitat. An essential element to mating is the ability to see each other’s flashes. Reducing our use of outdoor lighting provides darker areas so flashes are more visible and recognized. I hope you enjoy this wonderful summertime phenomena in your own backyard theatre tonight!

Beavers

Beavers, Castor canadensis, members of the order Rodentia, are mammals characterized by a single pair of continuously growing teeth located in each of the upper and lower jaws. Between three and three-and-a-half feet in length, beavers weigh 26 to 60 pounds. Their fur is reddish-brown with an outer layer of long, coarse guard hairs covering an inner layer of fine, short hair. Beavers often groom themselves and comb oil into their fur to make it waterproof, keeping the animal dry and warm. Their tails are covered with leathery scales and a few short hairs.

Castor canadensis, American beaver by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, UM-Ann Arbor

A beaver’s body, shaped like a bullet, is made for swimming with a top speed of 6-mph in the water. Their back feet have five toes with flexible webbing in between providing lots of power in the water, but making them rather clumsy and slow on land. Several other adaptations assist in making a beaver an incredible swimmer. Valves in their ears and nose can be closed to prevent water from entering. The eyes have a transparent eyelid that closes, protecting the eye, but allows them to still see underwater. Beavers can remain underwater for up to 15 minutes, covering a half-mile in distance. Upon diving, the heart rate slows by half, and the animal can tolerate a considerable amount of carbon dioxide buildup before requiring clean oxygen. They keep their front paws balled up in fists close to their heads to act as bumpers to push floating debris away, and their tail acts as a rudder.

Castor canadensis, American beaver by Tanya Dewey, American Diversity Web

Beavers live in colonies including a male and female who mate for life, their yearlings and new born kits. Kits mature in one-and-a-half to two years, and are then encouraged to move out on their own. Evidence of beaver activity in an area includes dams, gnawed trunks, paths and mudslides. Beavers make paths about a foot wide with trimmed edges and a brushed surface leading from their dwelling to feeding grounds. As paths become well used, they turn into mudslides when they lead into a pond. Usually roaming no more than a half mile from home, families will leave scent mounds of mud and bark mixed with anal gland secretions to mark their territories. When swimming, tails are used to send a warning by slapping the water. This not only creates a loud sound, but also can be used to generate a wave of water in the face of a potential predator allowing the beaver time to escape.

Path of Castor canadensis, American beaver by Tanya Dewey, American Diversity Web

Beavers are herbivores, and the plants they eat depend on what species are available in their home habitat. Woody species are an important food source during winter months, and are harvested in summer and fall to be cached in their dwelling or at the bottom of ponds near the dwelling entrance. These can then be accessed during winter months even if ponds are frozen over. Beavers are known to eat willow, river birch, maple, cottonwood, black cherry, dogwood, beech, and oak. They also eat roots and rhizomes of aquatic plants including water lilies, duckweed, arrowhead, and cattails, and will consume grasses, sedges, clovers, and corn on land. Beavers eat one-and-a-half to two pounds of food daily.

Bank dwelling of Castor canadensis, American beaver by Tanya Dewey, American Diversity Web

In the mid-to-late 1800s, beavers were extirpated in many localities by trapping for the fur trading industry. Reintroduced from neighboring colonies throughout the first half of the 1900s, beavers continue to fill an important role in the proper functioning of an ecosystem from blocking flowing water to create new wetlands to removing stands of trees and allowing new vegetation to colonize an area. New wetlands attract waterfowl, turtles, snakes, mammals, and insects. After several generations have cleared the surrounding land of trees and shrubs, beavers will move to a new area, allowing the abandoned homesite to slowly drain and fill in with new soils and opportunities for meadow flora and fauna.

Cattails

Cattails are a familiar plant seen growing in wetland habitats throughout the area. Native to many parts of the world, including North America, South America, Africa and Eurasia, they provide food and protection for many species living in wetlands. Cattails are an emergent plant, with roots growing in soil underwater and the remainder of the plant emerging above the surface, into the air. Cattails prefer six to eighteen inches of water, although they can tolerate drought conditions as long as the soil remains moist.

Broad-leaved cattail, Typha latifolia by Tom Benson

Narrow-leaved cattail flowers, Typha angustifolia by Ryan Hodnett

There are two species of cattails common in Illinois. Broad-leaved cattail, Typha latifolia, and narrow-leaved cattail, Typha angustifolia, have many of the same characteristics and hybridize easily, so identification may be difficult. Stems are three feet to nine feet tall and are firmly anchored in the wet soil by a complex system of fine, tentacled roots; they are flanked by slightly shorter, narrow, upright, olive-green leaves. Separate groups of male and female flowers grow at the top of the stem. Yellow male flowers are located at the tip above a thick, velvety cluster of dark brown female flowers. The male flowers of broad-leaved cattails grow immediately above the female flowers, but on narrow-leaved cattails there is a space of several inches between the two groups.

Broad-leaved cattail flowers, Typha latifolia by Kevin Kenny

Both cattail species live in the same habitat and are aggressive spreaders. They utilize two different reproductive strategies. Rhizomes, roots growing horizontally along the soil surface, begin to spread in autumn. They cease growth during the colder temperatures of winter, but become active again in spring. Where the rhizome comes in contact with the soil, a new clone of the original plant is started. Clonal clusters grow in tight masses of up to a hundred stems. A second reproduction strategy is wind pollination. Pollen, a male sex cell, fertilizes female flowers. Seeds are then also spread by the wind. After pollen is dispersed, the male portion of the flower spike withers and falls off. The dark brown cluster of seeds may include up to 200,000 per stem. As seeds pull away from the stem, an attached silk plume billows out behind, allowing the seed to be borne long distances on steady breezes.

a quiet canoe trip on Isobel Lake…a Marsh Wren’s (Cistothorus palustris) desk amongst the reeds…Marsh Wren nest by Murray Foubister

Wetlands provide safe habitat for many species of spiders, insects, fish, turtles, birds and mammals. The denseness of cattail clusters keeps predators out while providing small pockets for homes. The area is a favorite for marsh wren, red-winged blackbird, yellow-headed blackbird, American coot and many species of rails and bitterns. Leaves are used for building nests and muskrat lodges. Young leaves provide food for many insects, mammals and birds. The carbohydrate-rich rhizome is an important food source for muskrat and geese. Seeds are rarely eaten, but seed heads provide over-wintering habitat for several moth larvae which in turn are a spring food source for many birds.

Muskrat with cattails by Michael B Smith

Early native Americans also enjoyed cattails in their meals. Flower spikes were roasted and served like corn cobs. Pollen was mixed with wheat flour to provide a nourishing base for bread. Today, leaves are woven into chair seats, rugs, and mats. Look for stands of cattails in nearby wetland communities, and observe the other species that live among them including ferns, rushes, sedges, grasses and the many animals that call these environments home.

Fern Fun

In prehistoric times, when we had a warm, moist, and stable climate, Ferns were some of the most plentiful plants to be found. Many of those growing at that time are now extinct, but as the climate cooled, many ferns adapted to the forms we see today, numbering over 12,000 worldwide including 400 in the U.S. and about 100 in the northeastern U.S. Ferns were among the first plants with vascular systems containing an internal system of tubes allowing for water and nutrient movement throughout the plant and providing support for an upright stance. There were no flowers, and their reproductive process, using spores, was not discovered until the late 1600s and not well understood until the mid-1800s.

Christmas fern, Polystichum acrostichoides, by Sandra Richard

Leaves, called fronds, have specialized cells on the bottom side called sporangia that produce spores. Sporangia first appear as small white or green dots, but as spores mature over time, they turn shiny and dark brown. Several hundred thousand to several million spores are created by each fern. When they are mature, spores are ejected by a variety of methods from being shot into the air to simply floating away on a slight breeze. If they do not land in a favorable environment, they can remain viable for up to a year.

Adder’s tongue fern, Ophioglossum pusillum, by Odd Wellies

The reproductive process, called alternation of generations, has both sexual and asexual components. In the asexual process, spores grow by dividing and forming a small structure called a prothallium that gets its water and nutrients directly from the soil. The prothallium divides into two more structures, the archegonium, containing an egg, and the antheridium, containing sperm. In the sexual process, sperm swim to the eggs, fertilize them, and a new plant begins to grow. The young fern, also known as a fiddlehead, is a tightly coiled collection of new fronds that pokes through the soil surface in spring. As growth continues, the flat, green fronds uncurl and have many leaflets on either side of a midrib stalk. Photosynthesis takes place in the fronds, producing food for the plant.

Walking fern with spores, Asplenium rhizophyllum, by Doug McGrady

*Walking fern, Asplenium rhizophyllum, by Patrick Alexander*

Spores represent the normal process for reproduction in most ferns, but some can reproduce strictly asexually by cloning of fronds, roots, or rhizomes. The walking fern, Asplenium rhizophyllum, a rare species found in dolomite canyons around Lake Michigan, are an example of cloning as they tip their fronds over till they touch the ground and start a new plant.

Interrupted fern, Osmunder claytoniana, by James St. John

Ferns come in a variety of sizes, from two inches to eight feet tall. They grow in most habitats, although they are rare in deserts. There are several ferns growing in the DuPage area that you may enjoy finding and learning about. The Christmas fern, Polystichum acrostichoides, is an evergreen plant growing in rich, moist wetlands and forests. Adder’s tongue fern, Ophioglossum pusillum, is found in fens and marshes, particularly areas with sandy or gravelly soil. Interrupted fern, Osmunder claytoniana, which got its name from the Saxon god, Osmunder the Waterman, who hid his family under the fern while fleeing his enemies, can be found on woodland slopes where there is seepage. Look for these as well as other species to enhance your hiking experiences.

Chipmunks

The eastern chipmunk, Tamias striatus, one of Illinois’ smaller mammals, is quite active in our area from late spring until mid-autumn. Chipmunks are abundant throughout Illinois, and they are one of four species of ground squirrels that also includes the thirteen-lined ground squirrel, the Franklin’s ground squirrel and the woodchuck. Chipmunks are the smallest of the four, weighing from two to five ounces and growing eight to twelve inches in length. They have alternating dark and light stripes on their backs, sides, and cheeks; light bellies; small, erect ears; and furry, flattened tails.

Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor

A chipmunk’s eyes are located on the sides of its head and provide excellent ninety-degree views from directly in front of their face around to both left and right sides. They can easily detect any nearby motion and moving shadows cast by birds or any other overhead object. Chipmunks have a poor sense of smell, but an excellent sense of hearing. They climb trees to escape predators and to search for food. Their fur is reddish-brown on top and a buff colored below, making them hard to see from overhead or underneath when they are up in the trees.

Eastern chipmunk burrow by Phil Myers, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor

After finding a mate, chipmunks construct an underground nest of extensive tunnels and chambers using their noses and clawed feet. A work tunnel is started by digging a well-hidden entrance hole followed by a wider tunnel leading to a large, centrally located nest chamber lined with leaves. Several smaller chambers are dug for food storage. A second exit hole is handy for emergencies, and several tunnels extend downwards to draw water away from the main tunnel system. Nests are often re-used each winter, adding many tunnels and chambers through annual remodeling.

Mated chipmunks will enter their nest in mid-November and stay together underground until late March. Chipmunks do not accumulate bodily fat reserves and do not hibernate. They can reduce their metabolic rate by 85% during sleep periods lasting from three to seven days. Awake for one to two days between sleep periods, they restore energy by eating from cached food supplies. Mating occurs in early spring followed by a 31-day gestation period. Two to eight hairless and completely dependent young are born in late April. The male chipmunk may leave the nest in spring, leaving the female to handle all rearing of the young, which are weaned at about six weeks.

Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus by J.P.Myers

Chipmunks have cheek pouches used for gathering food. These extend from the mouth down either side of the neck and are expandable, carrying up to two tablespoons of seeds and grass. Food may include seeds, nuts, fungi, bulbs, moles, grasshoppers, small frogs, salamanders, and bird eggs. Cheek pouches reduce the number of excursions outside the nest needed to fill food caches. However, they usually do not carry a maximum load because they still need to fit their head through their tunnel opening of about two inches in diameter. They find water in fallen leaves or small pools and will drink as much as 25% of their weight daily.

Chipmunks are common visitors to woodlands and backyards where food is easily found. When danger is nearby, they immediately freeze all movement and can hold their position for several minutes. When the tail is held upright, this is a signal of danger nearby. When establishing or defending territory, they will stomp their feet and swish their tails. Chipmunks take frequent dust baths to remove mites, fleas and other bugs from their fur. Active mainly in the early morning and late afternoon, they are fun to observe, especially when exhibiting their unique behaviors.

It’s Got Legs!!

Is it a hundred-legger or a thousand-legger? It’s “one of those things with all those legs!”. “Those things” are members of the sub-phylum Myriapoda, “many-legged,” containing over 16,000 species of centipedes, millipedes and others. They were some of the first animals to leave water and adapt to living on land about 250 million years ago.

They share a common habitat and many similar characteristics, but centipedes and millipedes have several distinguishing attributes by which we can tell them apart. In North America, both animals are between 1/2″ to 6″ in length. Millipedes are black with light markings and have a round, tube-like body. Centipedes are pale yellow to dark brown with a flat body. Both have exoskeletons, a hard outer shell providing protection for the soft parts of their inner bodies. As the animals grow, they shed their exoskeletons and grow a new one. Millipede shells are made from calcium, a hard and inflexible material. Centipede shells are made from chitin, a fibrous substance that is hard to penetrate, but is flexible to allow the animal to bend or flatten.

All species of centipedes and millipedes have many pairs of jointed legs. Centipedes have one pair of long, slender legs for each body segment, allowing for high-speed movement when chasing prey or escaping danger. Millipedes have two pairs of short, stubby legs per body segment that are used mainly for pushing when digging burrows. While still in the egg, millipedes undergo a fusion of every two body segments, resulting in each segment having four legs. While milli means one-thousand and centi means one-hundred, the greatest number of legs is 750 and 254 respectively.

Common centipede by Roadsidepictures, 2009

Centipedes and millipedes do not compete for food but do share the same habitat, under leaf litter, in burrows of loose soil, and cool, damp places. Millipedes are decomposers, able to chew and tear plants efficiently. They cannot break down cellulose easily by themselves, but prefer to eat plants already partially consumed by bacteria and fungi. Centipedes are carnivores and their first segmented pair of feet end in a set of lobster-like claws used for catching and rending prey including silverfish and cockroaches. The claws are sharp and contain venom ducts for stunning prey.

Millipede in defensive posture by Matthew Venn, 2007

Myriapoda generally live in dark, humid places because they cannot protect their bodies against water loss. Many centipedes have light gathering sensors located over the entire body to help them detect brighter areas and stay well hidden, away from predators with better eyesight. Millipedes may roll up and play dead when threatened, exposing only their hard exoskeleton to predators. Other millipede species exude a sticky glue-like substance behind them to slow down predators, and still others have the ability to spray an attacker with hydrogen cyanide from ducts located along each body segment.

Narceus americanus, millipede by siralbertus, 2013

Centipedes and millipedes both provide vital environmental services. Centipedes eat a variety of smaller insect prey including earthworms and household spiders. Millipedes are detritivores, feeding on decomposing vegetation and organic matter. Sow bugs, pill bugs and millipedes together reduce the amount of leaf litter built up on the forest floor by about five percent each year. Whenever you have a chance, I urge you to take a closer look at these wondrous garden denizens.

Oh To Be So Shrew-d

The most abundant mammal in Illinois and a frequent visitors to fields, forests and backyards is an animal that is almost never seen. Among the most primitive of animals, the Northern short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda, is an insectivore, eating mainly insects. The shrew family contains 312 species worldwide of which 33 are native to North America. They are small mammals with short, dense fur, five-clawed toes and small eyes and ears. A wedge shaped skull ends in a long, pointed nose. An adult shrew is four inches in length plus a one inch tail and weighs about one ounce.

Masked Shrew, Sorex cinereus by Phil Myers, UMAA

The shrew is a secretive animal, staying hidden when above ground. They live mainly underground, digging tunnels or using old tunnels abandoned by voles. Their burrow entrances are marked by a glandular secretion that serves as a warning to keep other shrews away. A male and female usually mate for life, but meetings between other individuals most often result in combat. They are fierce competitors and will initially try to chase each other away. Combat is marked by much screeching with kicking and biting until one relents. Fights end when one combatant assumes a submissive position, laying on its back, and the other leaves. Rarely do fights end in death.

Northern short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda by Marjorie OBrien

Breeding begins in early spring. Shrews can have two to three litters each year with five to ten young born in each litter. Nests are built from grass, leaves and hair and are located under logs or inside burrows. At birth, a young shrew is blind, pink, and hairless. Babies are the size of a honeybee. A baby shrew feeds on mother’s milk for about three weeks until it is able to fend for itself. A typical lifespan is one to two years.

Northern short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda by Phil Myers, UMAA

Shrews can eat one-and-a-half times their weight each day. They eat several times every 24 hours and are active at all times of the day and night. They take short rest periods between meals, but no long sleep period. Shrews have poor hearing and eyesight and find their prey by smell and touch. Long runways are constructed underground, attracting beetle larvae, earthworms, snails and an occasional mouse. Unique among mammals, the Northern short-tailed shrew can paralyze a victim with venom contained in its saliva, and then save the prey for a later meal. They can deliver a painful bite to humans, but the venom will not harm us. Shrews live deep underground in winter, continuing to feed on dormant beetle adults and larvae throughout the season.

Three other shrews also live in Illinois but are much less abundant. These include the masked shrew, Sorex cinereus, found in wetland areas; the least shrew, Cryptotis parva, active at night in grassy fields; and the pygmy shrew, Sorex hoyi, found in deep woods. The pygmy shrew is thought to be very rare, but that may be because of its secretive nature and diminutive size, weighing about 1/16th of an ounce.

Northern short-tailed shrew, Blarina brevicauda by Gilles Gonthier

The shrew may be a difficult animal to observe, but it is an important link in the food chain. They maintain a healthy control on the insect populations where they live. In turn, they provide food for minks, hawks, owls and snakes. They are abundant and secretive, but if you want to observe their behaviors, one of the best places to start is to look under bird feeders in your backyard. Search for a small, two inch diameter hole where the shrew may be poking out its nose in search of falling seeds for a snack.

Neighborhood Nests

There is a lot of activity taking place outdoors. We are a couple of months into spring, and many birds have returned to warm weather activities after winter. They are actively engaged in finding mates, building nests, laying eggs, and raising young. Birds in backyards, woodlands and open fields build a variety of types of nests, many of which we can find when we are outside enjoying our daily activities.

Nests are used by birds of all species as a place where eggs can be kept warm and safe until they are ready to hatch. Some birds build a new nest every year, and some will build a nest for every new clutch of eggs. Others return to use an old nest, one of their own they keep adding material to or one that is found in a convenient place worthy of renovation and reuse.

The type of nest and the habitat it is located in are excellent indicators of the specific bird living there. Each species is known for a specific type of construction including ground nests, platforms located low in foliage or high in trees, open cup nests, closed or domed cup nests, and nests created using a natural cavity, such as a tree hollow. Nests keep eggs and young together, provide a place hidden from predators, with protection from harsh weather. They are built from materials available in the area. These materials include twigs to pine needles to monofilament fishing line. The form and function of the nest does not widely vary for any species. As you are out walking this spring, here are a few of the more interesting nests that you may be able to spot.

Blue jays, Cyanocitta cristata, are found in forests, meadows, parks and backyards, and build a bulky nest of thorny twigs, bark, moss and string. Their nests are located in the crotch or outer branch of deciduous or conifer trees. Nests are well hidden, seven to eight inches across, and lined with soft rootlets. Jays, known for their brash, loud calls, exhibit very different behavior around nest sites, becoming very quiet so as to not give away the nest location.

Ruby-throated Hummingbird on nest by Lorie Shaull

Ruby-throated hummingbirds, Archilochus colubris, are small, very quick fliers. Nests can be found in a variety of trees, ten to twenty feet off the ground. Made of plant down, fibers, and bud scales, nests are attached to a twig or small branch that slants downward. Hummingbirds use spider silk to securely bind the nest to the limb under a canopy of leaves. The nest, about the size of a thimble and covered with green-blue lichen, is very hard to see, resembling a knot on the branch.

The Baltimore oriole, Icterus galbula, is often found in city parks and backyards. The oriole builds a thin-walled, deep, basket-like nest of coarse grass lined with finer grass. The nest hangs from a forked tree branch between ten and twenty feet off the ground. Nests are commonly hung in locations that are well concealed by leaves. Many orioles like to nest with Eastern kingbirds, an aggressive species that keeps away predators and cowbirds.

As you are out walking along stream banks and woodland paths, and maintaining a close watch on your own backyard, keep a keen eye open for observing the places that birds call home. Getting to know the area and habits of the birds as they raise families is a rewarding experience.

A Drought of Amphibians

This year we are experiencing drought conditions in northeast Illinois. A drought, defined as a period of little or no rain, can have major impacts on the amphibian populations of an area. At the end of winter, as snow melts and expected spring rainstorms move into the area, many ephemeral wetlands fill with water. These pools, marshes and ponds contain water for only short periods ranging from several weeks to a few months. But they are an important link in the chain of amphibian reproduction.

Many frogs and toads live in woodland areas, but depend on wetlands for breeding and habitat for their young. Male frogs and toads return to local ponds each spring to find a mate by calling. Most calling is done in the evening, but sometimes individuals call during the day. Females will find their way to their favorite singer, then lay a gelatinous egg sac, which the male fertilizes. Eggs may be located on floating vegetation, hanging under rocks or logs, or laid on the bottom. Eggs have no shell and must remain wet to live. Eggs hatch into tadpoles in a week or less. Tadpoles may transform to adult form in as little as two weeks or as long as the following year.

Wetlands of all types are showing changes due to the drought conditions. Shallow ponds and marsh areas are dry or retaining only enough moisture to have wet soil, and are no longer a usable wetland for many species. Deeper ponds are down several inches in depth. A difference of only a few inches in depth can add several feet of shoreline where banks gradually slope into the water. Exposed rocks and logs used by turtles for basking are high enough over the water’s surface that they may no longer be accessible to these species. Creeks and rivers are lower and slower. Turtles and water snakes that depend on depth and fast flow for protection may find these are no longer a means of escape.

Shrinking permanent wetlands put pressure on the species that already live there. Ponds are habitat for newts, tadpoles, crustaceans, frogs, toads, turtles, birds, naiads and insects, and microscopic life. As the amount of water decreases, habitat in the pond is reduced. Shallows where a bank slowly submerges may have a steeper drop-off. Logs once laying at surface level may be several inches higher than the surface, eliminating areas underneath, once used for protection. Less water means less available oxygen and food for the animals already sharing the pool. Den and nest sites in banks at the water’s edge become more exposed.

Rain during the early part of May has helped alleviate some of these issues, but more rain is needed, continuing into the summer. Maintaining your own backyard wet areas with shade and consistent watering provides good habitat for many animals that live among us. You can watch many of these species in area wetlands on trails and in local parks this spring.

Trillium

Take a walk in any woodland at this time of year and there is a multitude of wildflowers growing on the forest floor. The genus trillium, in the lily family, includes forty-three species worldwide and thirty-eight that can be found in North America, most east of the Mississippi River.

Trillium flowers come in a variety of colors including white, yellow, pink, red, purple, and striped. When mature, all parts of the plant are in multiples of three including bracts, sepals, petals, anthers and ovules. All species are herbs that grow from seed or by sending out roots to start new plants. In biological terms, there are no true leaves nor stalks. Only the flower and bracts, usually identified as leaves, are visible aboveground, existing as extensions of the root. The bracts do function like leaves including photosynthesizing food for the plant.

Prairie trillium, *Trillium recurvatum* by DonArnold

Prairie trillium detail, *Trillium recurvatum* by DonArnold

Prairie trillium, Trillium recurvatum, likes wet or dry woodlands and savannas. Flowers are at the ends of 6″-15″ tall stems surrounded by three green bracts. The flower has three triangular, dark maroon sepals containing six stamens with black anthers. A single fruit develops with several small, dark brown seeds. Variations of this plant have been found with yellow petals and purple anthers.

Toad trillium, *Trillium sessile*, Smithsonian Institution, Richard A. Howard Collection @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

Toad trillium, Trillium sessile, is found in the southern portion of DuPage County and further south in Illinois. Growing on bluffs and banks of streams and rivers, it is uncommon in dry woodlands. Sessile flowers, a term referring to a flower developing directly on top of the bracts, are dark maroon containing six maroon and yellow-striped anthers. Ovules develop into a three-celled white to purplish-green fruit with several seeds in each cell.

Large-flowered trillium, *Trillium grandiflorum* by Joshua Mayer

Large-flowered trillium, Trillium grandiflorum, has become less common over the last few decades. It is found in wet or dry woodlands and savannas. 8″-18″ tall, it produces a single flower 2″-4″ across composed of three white petals set against three green sepals. The flowers slowly turn pink as they age. Possibly due to the more showy appearance, this plant is readily browsed by deer. When found in colonies, the large leaves can form shelter for small mammals such as field mice and shrews.

Declined Trillium, *Trillium flexipes* by Dan Mullen

Declined Trillium, Trillium flexipes, is found in wet or dry woodlands, particularly in oak dominated areas. Growing up to 2′ tall, a single white flower is produced on a nodding peduncle of a mature plant. About 2″ across, the flower is three white petals and three green sepals surrounding six light yellow anthers. The flower hangs downward a little above or below the bracts. A six-angled seed capsule replaces the flower in late summer.

Trillium seed with elaiosome, by Danny Najera

Trilliums develop very slowly, often taking several years to develop into a mature plant able to produce flowers and seeds. During summer heat and drought, plants may go dormant, retreating back into the thick root. Because of this slow growth rate, trilliums are not often found in nursery sales. Each year as a new shoot is sent up from the root, a ridge forms where the new bud grows. Counting the ridges on a root can give a good indication of the age of the plant. Many plants have been found that are several decades old.

Ant with trillium seed and elaiosome, by Danny Najera

Trilliums spread by seeds that contain an elaiosome, a white, fleshy container of nutrients attached to each seed. Favored by ants and wasps, this nutritional package is taken to feed their young while the seed is ignored. Ants nesting in soil mounds or decomposing wood and yellow-jacket wasps nesting underground all help to move seeds around.

Spring is lasting a little longer this year with the cooler temperatures we have been experiencing. I hope you get out for a woodland walk to see the many wildflowers in bloom.

Wildflowers, pt.2

I am observing many more wildflowers in the woods this year, with lots of sunlight, cool to warm temperatures, and just enough rainfall for a long spring growing season. Here are a few more species that are blooming now or have foliage up and buds formed and will be open within the next week.

Celandine poppy, Stylophorum diphyllum, is native to southern Illinois woodlands and is considered uncommon in the northern areas of the state. There are historical accounts of this plant being found in the mid-1800s growing along Salt Creek in Bemis Woods. These flowers may be found in backyard gardens. They bloom in late spring for two to three weeks; and this year the weather is extending the bloom period. After blooming, a seed capsule grows, densely covered with soft hairs. The capsule splits open into four segments each containing several seeds.

Celandine poppy,*Stylophorum diphyllum* ,with seed cluster by DonArnold

Celandine poppy foliage is toxic and not eaten by animals, although seeds provide food for woodland mice. Seeds pods contain an oily treat for ants, which distribute the seeds by taking the seed and treat back to their nest. Stems contain a yellowish sap, once used as dye by native Americans. The flower is insect pollinated, although little is known about the insect species that visit. In the absence of insects, flowers are able to self-pollinate.

Jack-in-the-Pulpit, *Arisaema triphyllum* by DonArnold

Jack-in-the-pulpit, Arisaema triphyllum, is a perennial with one or two trifoliate (three-part) leaves. A single whitish-green or reddish-green flower sits on top of a long central stem. The flower consists of a spadix, a fleshly, clublike spike cuddled in a spathe, a leaflike bract the curls around the back and over the top of the spadix. After pollination by gnats or thrips, the spadix develops into a large bunch of fleshy red fruits, each containing one or more seeds. Fruits are eaten by wild turkey and other woodland birds, but the seeds pass through their digestive tracts unharmed and are spread in the woods. All plants are initially male. As they grow, female flowers develop below the male flowers on the spadix. Male flowers die before female flowers mature, preventing self-pollination.

Green Dragon, *Arisaema dracontium* by Doug Grady

Green Dragon fruit bunch, *Arisaema dracontium* by Qwen Wan

The green dragon, Arisaema dracontium, is a less commonly found close relative of jack-in-the-pulpit. This perennial is one to three feet tall with a single, green leaf up to two feet across and divided into five to thirteen leaflets hanging parallel to the ground. An erect, leafless flower stalk about one foot tall ends in a single flower. Like jack-in-the-pulpit, the green dragon flower contains a spadix wrapped by a spathe. The green dragon spathe continues upward to a partially open, pointed top. The spadix has both male and female flowers. After pollination, a large bunch of orange-red berries develops near summer’s end. Green dragon is not as common as jack-in-the-pulpit. Both are found in deciduous woodlands in light shade under trees or along stream banks. Foliage of both plants is mildly toxic and avoided by woodland mammals. The toxicity is from calcium oxylate, a chemical that causes a sensation of being stuck in the mouth and tongue by many small needles.

We usually think of barberry as being an undesirable plant, but one species of this family is Podophyllum peltatum, the mayapple. A perennial with light green to reddish stalks; it may be fertile or infertile. Two petioles, leaf stalks, are found on infertile plants, whereas fertile plants have only one petiole. Flowers on fertile plants are located where the two petioles branch apart. Flowers have six to nine white petals and are light green to pale yellow inside, with yellow anthers. Flower develop into pale yellow, fleshy berries each containing several seeds.

Mayapple, *Podophyllum peltatum* by DonArnold

Mayapple is native to Illinois, occurring mainly in dry, open woodlands. Pollination is by bumblebees and other long-tongued bee species. Foliage is toxic, but berries are edible when ripe and eaten by a variety of woodland amphibians and mammals. Seeds are not digestible and are spread in feces. Plants also spread from rhizotomous roots that can form large, dense colonies. All plant parts contain podophyllotoxin, an ingredient used in many prescription drugs. Historically used by Native Americans for several medicinal purposes including jaundice, constipation , and as a worm expellant, the plant can be toxic to humans if consumed in large quantities.

Some of these woodland wildflowers cover large areas and are easily observed. Get out for a walk in the woods near you to see many of these species blooming throughout the next few weeks. Trees are beginning to leaf out and once the sunlight is blocked off by the canopy, some green foliage will still cover the forest floor, but these wonderful blooms will be gone until next year.

Exotic Invasives

In spring we see a multitude of wildflowers in the woods, but we can also observe the greatest impact of invasive plants. There are sixteen species that are regulated by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources which are illegal to buy, sell, or distribute without a special license. All of these plants present a threat to natural areas and the health of native species.

Woodland habitats are characterized by stands of trees forming a closed canopy that provides a shady forest floor. Native woodland wildflowers compete for sunlight by blooming in early spring before the trees leaf out. Other understory plants are shade-adapted and able to grow in the reduced light under the canopy. Invasive plants grow aggressively and spread outside their native range. Exotic or non-native plants have few issues with disease and the foliage is not eaten by native animals. The combination of these factors make exotic invasive species a serious threat to the sustained health of our native woods. The following three examples are species appearing now in our area woodlands.

Garlic Mustard, *Alliaria petiolata*, by AJC1

Garlic Mustard, *Alliaria petiolata*, S root, by Ellen MacDonald

Garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata, was imported from Eurasia in the 1800s as a pot herb. It is a biennial, developing flowers and seeds in its second year. Growing 1′-3′ tall, it has medium green leaves with upper stems terminating in a group of small white flowers that bloom for 6-8 weeks in late spring. The taproot has a characteristic “S” shape near the top, but plants are easy to pull out. If the entire root is not pulled out, the plant will quickly send up new shoots. If flowers are mature, seeds will continue to develop and disperse even after the plant is pulled out of the ground and composted. When removal is done in late spring, plants need to be bagged and totally removed from the woodland.

Common buckthorn, *Rhamnus cathartica* by Gail Hampshire

Common buckthorn, Rhamnus cathartica, was imported from Eurasia as a hedge and landscape plant. It develops as a large shrub or small tree, growing to 25′ tall. Buckthorn has glossy leaves and rough textured gray to brown bark covered in white lenticels. If the bark is scratched or peeled away, it is bright yellow underneath. A plant can be either male or female. After flowering, female plants develop dark blue berries, which turn to black by autumn. The berries are eaten by robins, starlings, and other birds, but seeds run through the digestive track undamaged and are thus spread about. Buckthorn releases a chemical called emodin, produced in leaves, berries, bark and roots that exhibits negative effects on other plants in its immediate vicinity. This chemical is toxic to amphibian embryos, disrupting development and preventing successful hatching. Cutting and herbicide application to the stump is an effective treatment.

Amur honeysuckle, *Lonicera Maackii* by Cultivar413

Amur honeysuckle bark, *Lonicera Maackii* by Cathie Bird

Amur honeysuckle, Lonicera maackii, was imported as early as the 1700s from Eurasia as an ornamental species. It is a multi-stemmed shrub, growing up to 20′ tall. Honeysuckle has medium green leaves and gray, woody branches with narrow vertical grooves. Plants bloom in late spring for about 3 weeks, then develop Juicy, bright red berries containing 2-3 seeds each, which are eaten by a variety of songbirds. Honeysuckle is one of the earliest plants to leaf out in spring, effectively preventing other understory plants around it from growing. Cutting the plant down promotes aggressive regrowth, with additional multiple stems and foliage. An herbicide treatment of the stump or foliage is an effective management method.

Control of exotic invasive species is quite difficult. In many cases, cutting simply promotes aggressive regrowth, and studies show that burning does not have much of an impact. The best control methods include preventing establishment of these species or removing the entire plant including the root system. This is not always a practical method. Herbicide has been the next best treatment option, especially in conjunction with cutting before flowers or seeds are produced. Note that the best treatments may be different for each species, so be sure to research different approaches. Several sources of information are available (click on names to link to each) from United States Department of Agriculture, University of Illinois Extension, the Illinois Department of Agriculture, and The Nature Conservancy. Consider the following documents as possible sources to start your research:

From Illinois Invasive Species: Invasive Species of Concern
From Northwest Illinois Forestry Association: Exotic, Invasive Plants in Illinois Habitats
From Northwest Illinois Forestry Association: TNC Weed Control Methods Handbook
From University of Illinois Extension: Illinois Exotic Weed Act

If you have these species in your yard or know of them in the area, consider getting involved in their eradication. Your other plants and animals will be better off.

Wildflowers, pt.1

At this time of year, wildflowers, known as spring ephemerals, take advantage of woodlands where trees have not yet leafed out, and sunlight is able to reach the forest floor. Here are some you may find as you wander the forests of northern Illinois.

Two species of hepatica, both members of the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. They have simple flowers having an indefinite number of petals, sepals, pistils, and stamens. Each floral part is separate and independently attached to the plant. There is very little consistency in this family, but there is one characteristic that stands out: all species contain an acrid oil that makes each one toxic to some degree. They prefer dappled sunlight in spring and shade in summer and are native to North American woods.

Sharp-lobed hepatica, *Hepatica acutiloba* by Jennifer Anderson hosted by USDA-NRCS Plants database

Round-lobed hepatica, *Hepatica americana* by Bobistraveling

Both sharp-lobed hepatica, Hepatica acutiloba, and round-lobed hepatica, Hepatica americana, have leaves containing three deep lobes and pale blue, pale pink, or white flowers. Plants hybridize easily and are found in early spring. They tend to grow in colonies where groups of flowers persist for two to three weeks, although each individual flower only lasts a few days. No nectar is produced, but pollen is taken by a variety of bees and flies. Chipmunks find the fruit to be one of their favorite foods. Hepatica, meaning ‘of the liver’ in Latin, gets its name from the similarity of the three lobes on each leaf to the shape of a liver.

Spring Beauty, *Claytonia virginica* by Sue OBrien

Spring beauty, Claytonia virginica, has light green foliage surrounding stems terminating in an array of white flowers with varying shades of pink stripes. Flowers bloom in mid to late spring over a 6-8 week period. They open during warm, sunny days but remain closed at night or during cool, overcast periods. Flowers are visited by bees, flies, and butterflies for both pollen and nectar. The corms are often eaten by white-footed mice and Eastern chipmunks. Seed pods nod almost to the ground and contain a small elaiosome, a fleshy structure rich in lipids and proteins attractive to the ant species that are the main dispersers of its seeds.

Spring beauty is commonly found throughout Illinois in open woodlands. Plants can survive stressful conditions and severely degraded areas.

Cutleaf toothwort, *Dentaria laciniata* by DonArnold

Cutleaf toothwort, Dentaria laciniata, has two different types of leaves and a flower stalk ending in a group of small white flowers. Flowers open on warm, sunny days, but remain closed in cooler, overcast conditions. One set of leaves provides food for this year’s flowers and seeds, while a second set of basal leaves stores energy for next year’s shoots. Seed pods develop after the flowers, and will forcefully pop open when touched, shooting seeds in every direction.

A wide variety of bees and early spring butterflies have been observed on the flowers. Forty-eight known species of bees in the Chicago area enjoy its nectar, and two species of leaf beetle use the plant for breeding. There are several species of toothwort in the family, but this is the only one native to Illinois. All are closely related to mustard, broccoli, and cabbage.

White trout lily, *Erythronium albidum* by DonArnold

White trout lily, Erythronium albidum, has green leaves mottled with brown and nodding flowers with six white sepals curved upwards and six yellow stamens hanging downwards. They bloom for about two weeks in mid-spring. After blooming, a three-chambered seed pod grows. Trout lily can reproduce from seeds or from stolons, aboveground shoots that root wherever they touch soil. They can be found everywhere in Illinois except in the farthest northwest corner of the state, near Galena.

There are three native trout lily in Illinois and white trout lily is the most common, but you may also find yellow trout lily, Erythonium americanum, and prairie trout lily, Erythronium mesochoreum. Several bee species are attracted to the pollen and nectar of all three species. Seed pods contain two rows of seed and an attached elaiosome as a treat for the ants who aid in the seed dispersal.

All of these plants can be found in spring in open woodland areas in northern Illinois. Finding large clumps of any of the species is a clear indication of higher quality woodlands that have seen little disturbance over a long period of time. Many wildflower species are being threatened by invasive plants introduced into our woods, and these are all particularly affected by garlic mustard, Alliaria petiolata. In addition, many woodland invasive species leaf out quite early and severely affect the amount of sunlight available for native species growing on forest floors. Come take a walk in one of the many forest preserves and enjoy these flowers among the many that are blooming this spring.

Sharp-lobed hepatica leaves, *Hepatica acutiloba* by Jennifer Anderson hosted by USDA-NRCS Plants database

Heronry

Herons, members of the Ardeidae family, have been returning to area nest sites for the past couple of weeks. Herons are mainly tropical birds, but they have spread out during warmer months to every continent except Antarctica. They can be found in all types of habitats except where high and low temperature extremes are the norm, such as high altitudes and dry deserts. Herons build nests in a heronry, a descriptive term for a rookery or colony of herons.

Lake Renwick Heron Rookery by Am Bananas

A heronry can include only a few nests or several hundred in one location. Nest sites are often located on islands, especially those created from dredging. These do not typically support other wildlife populations. Predators searching for eggs and young chicks, especially raccoons, find it difficult to access nest sites. Nests can be located near the water’s surface, in reed-beds, or high up in the tops of tall trees, from 40′ to 100′ off the ground. It is not unusual for a single tree to support 8-10 nests. Individual birds tend to colonize with their own species, although a good nest site may support several colonies of different species adjacent to each other.

Black-crowned Night Heron and Great Blue Heron by Eric Heupel

Herons eat a wide variety of foods, but are strictly carnivorous. Their main food comes from aquatic habitats and includes fish, crustaceans, and amphibians. They occasionally hunt in non-wetland habitats, including agricultural fields and grasslands, eating voles, field mice, and other live prey. A primary reason for colony style nesting is the scarcity of nest sites that are safe from predators and still close enough to food sources, typically from one to three miles away. One advantage is that the food source can be shared among many individuals.

Once a suitable location for a heronry is established, nests will be reused from year to year. Returning males arrive first, choose a nest, and then find a mate. Birds may choose different mates each spring, but will remain monogamous for that year. Nests are constructed by weaving together twigs of various lengths and start out about 20″ in diameter. As nests are reused by new pairs of birds, they are continually rebuilt and improved each year. Older nests may reach massive proportions of up to five feet across.

Lake Renwick Heron and Cormorants by Synspectrum

Adult herons are at the top of their food chain, their only predator is humans. As such, they are considered an excellent indicator of the health of our wetlands. Draining wetlands for urban or agricultural development removes them as a food source, and a heronry may be abandoned if there is not enough food available for raising young. Human disturbance can also have negative effects on reproduction. Repeated intrusions into nesting sites results in nest failure and abandonment of eggs or chicks. It is against the law to disturb any rookery or heronry.

To learn more and safely view all of the activity of a heronry, consider a visit to one of Illinois’ premier sites, the Lake Renwick Heron Rookery in Plainfield, Illinois. They have limited days and hours, so before you go, check their website at: https://www.reconnectwithnature.org/preserves-trails/visitor-centers/lake-renwick-heron-rookery-visitor-center

Tornado

April in Illinois sees more tornados than any other month, although the peak season will last through June. Tornados form mostly in the late afternoon or early evening, after the sun has had time to heat the atmosphere. About 54 occur yearly in Illinois, with more than half of them coming during the next three months as the jet stream centers over our latitudes.

Tornados develop over several hours. First there is a thunderstorm where a warm, moist air mass is located in front of an eastward moving cold front. The cold air pushes up and over the warm air creating instability in the air mass. Warm air pushes upward and cools as it reaches higher altitudes. As the air cools, moisture carried aloft in the warm air condenses to form water droplets that fall back toward the warmer air. This area, where air continues to rise and fall, is called a convection cell. With small amounts of air and water, clouds will form; with large amounts, a thunderstorm may develop.

Wind at varying heights, moving in different directions and speeds, can start a rotating column of air. As warm air is drawn into the bottom of the column, rotation speed increases, becoming faster toward the higher regions. If the air in the rotating column near the ground is very cold, it will spread away from the storm and a tornado will not form. Once a tornado is spawned, it may persist for only a few seconds or for several hours. Tornados move about 30 miles per hour and generally cover less than six miles. There are an average of 100,000 thunderstorms occurring in the U.S. annually, spawning about 1,000 tornados. Damage from these storms is caused by the high winds as well as flying debris.

NOAA-NASA Storm Tracking over midwest US

A variety of scientific instruments are used to detect when and where tornados will form including satellites, weather balloons, radar and computer modeling. The first time radar detected a tornado was in 1953 in Champaign, IL, while running tests on a new radar site. This led to a push to create a nationwide network of radar sites for tracking dangerous weather related events. In the 1990s, a new radar system was created that was able to track the Doppler Effect which shows a change in the frequency of a sound wave as the source of the sound is moving in relation to the radar site. Doppler Radar can detect areas of rotating air within a thunderstorm, and rotational speed, providing more precise information for forecasters trying to determine if a tornado will form.

How Radar Works at weather.gov/jetstream/how by NWS

Being prepared is the key to staying safe and reducing the risks from these natural events. Pay attention to weather reports, warnings, and watches. At home, know where safe shelter is located. Whether home or away, tune to NOAA Weather Radio or follow instructions from local officials. If your community has sirens, become familiar with the warning tones. When outside, do not trust bridges – you are safer in a low, flat location. Be aware of flying debris, and use your arms to protect your head and neck. At home, move to a basement or small interior room away from windows, doors, and outside walls. Remember to include pets in your plans. You may consider storing emergency supplies including water, non-perishable foods, medical supplies and medication.

There have been numerous studies and statistical analyses done on tornado events. In the past 70 years, there has been no real increases in number of tornados occurring annually. Due to better data collection techniques, historical records show sharp increases in the number of recorded tornados occurring twice, first in 1954, after the new countrywide radar network was activated and in the mid-1990s after Doppler Radar was put into general use. More information is available at the Illinois State Climatologist’s website including maps of previous events for each county at IL Tornado Mapping and plots of tornado related statistics at IL Tornado Plots.

Phenology

In spring we see a lot of changes taking place as temperatures warm heading into summer. Recurring events in the life cycles of many organisms are influenced or determined by changes in the weather. Phenology is the study of these cyclic and seasonal changes in plant and animal life in relation to what is going on with current climate changes. An example is a series of changes that take place in plants throughout the year starting in spring with budburst, leaf-out, flowering, fruit ripening, leaf-coloring, and leaf-fall. All of these stages in the life cycle of a plant are determined by what is happening with the climate where that plant is located.

The history of phenology dates back to the mid-1700s. In the late 1800s, fanciers in England made phenology one of the first citizen science pastimes and attracted over 600 observers. Results of plant changes were kept by the Royal Meteorological Society of Great Britain until the late 1940s, when the activity simply fell out of favor. It was restarted in England in 1998, and continues today. Robert Marsham, considered to be the founder of modern phenology, was a naturalist living on his country estate in Norfolk, England. In 1936, he started writing “Indications Of Spring” a publication of his phenology notes recording 27 springtime changes. Some of those included first leaf, flowering dates, and first sightings of butterflies and swallows. He devoted over sixty years to this work. After his death, further generations of his family added to it well into the 20th century.

Here is an example from observations of springtime events in oak trees. In the last 250 years in England, overall temperatures have risen an average of 1.5˚C. First leaf-out of oaks in spring is occurring eight days earlier, and bud-burst is happening eleven days earlier. Thousands of insects that depend on oak trees for food and shelter are now emerging earlier due to these changes. Migrant birds returning to England to mate and raise young depend on the emerging insect populations for food at the same time as young birds are born. The data indicates that returning birds have not been able to keep up with these timing changes. As a result, babies are born too late, after other predators have reduced one of their major food sources, negatively affected the bird populations and the entire food chain.

There are several published studies of plant and animal observations including climate data, made over long periods. Analysis of this data reveals the progress and changes in the annual natural calendar. Interactions between plants and animals are vital to the survival of individuals and whole species. Much of this knowledge comes to us from herbaria records documenting these ecological changes over time. Collections include dried specimens, field notebooks, and journals recording observations and hypothesis fitting the facts into known history of the moment. Knowledge of phenology and understanding the timing of events provides critical data for habitat management. Applications of phenology include management of invasive species and forest pests, predictions of human health-related events, such as allergies and mosquito season, optimization of when to plant, fertilize, and harvest crops, understanding the timing of ecosystem processes, such as carbon cycling, and assessment of the vulnerability of species, populations, and ecological communities to ongoing climate change.

The USA-NPN, National Phenology Network, was established in 2007 to collect, store, and share phenology data and information. It provides a place to assemble long-term phenology datasets for a many species across the U.S. Data is used to create models from historical changes. These models, coupled with current observations, help us understand how different species respond to changes in climate over time in specific habitats. This type of study can be used to determine the extent to which species, populations, and communities are vulnerable to ongoing and projected future changes in climate.

Nature’s Notebook is the USA-NPN program allowing professionals and volunteers to record long-term observations of plant and animal life changes. If you would like to try a fun activity, and be part of a large network of observers and gain a better understanding of what you are seeing in your own neighborhood, consider becoming an NPN volunteer scientist. There are lots of resources available to assist you in making observations and in learning about nature. USA-NPN general information can be found at https://www.usanpn.org/home or become an observer by signing up at: Natures Notebook (https://www.usanpn.org/natures_notebook).

Red-winged Blackbird

Signs of spring continue in many places this month, and one of those is the return of red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus. Males are a glossy black with bright red shoulder patches bordered in yellow called epaulets. Females are dark, streaky brown with an orange-ish face and chin and faint pale orange epaulets. Members of the blackbird family, they have stocky, rounded wings, a short tail, and a thick beak.

Red-winged blackbirds winter in Mexico and migrate in spring to the United States and southern Canada. Wetlands, including marsh, wet meadow, and heavily vegetated shores of small ponds, are their preferred habitat. Nests are built in wet, brushy areas. They are cup-shaped, woven from twigs and grass, and attached to straight, vertical shoots near the water’s surface. They are held together with mud and lined with fine grasses for comfort and insulation.

Red-winged Blackbird song and call recorded on the Cub Lake Trail in Rocky Mountain National Park. Note that an American Robin, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Wilson’s Snipe, House Wren and the buzz of a hummingbird flying by can also be heard in the recording.

Males arrive first in the spring and select a territory. They have a wide variety of songs for attracting mates and warning other males to stay out of their territory. Many blackbird species have the ability to learn and incorporate new songs into the repertoire. Males use many convoluted flight sequences that show their bright red and yellow epaulets as warning signs for both competitors and potential predators. Experiments studying the red shoulder patch shows that birds use them to establish a rank in the social order of birds in the area. A bird defending its own territory will display the whole epaulet, whereas a bird searching for food outside its established range will keep the red shoulder partially concealed, so as to not provoke an attack.

Females choose their mates, based in part on the amount of territory a male can hold and defend and by habitat quality. If there is enough vegetation to support multiple nest sites and insect populations for food, this is a clear indication of a highly desirable breeding partner and more than one female may choose to mate with the same male. Timing of egg laying is tied to availability of food. Females will have two broods each year, with three to four eggs in each.

Red-winged Blackbird eggs by Iowa Cooperative Fish&Wildlife Research

Red-winged blackbirds are extremely bold birds. They are not afraid to attack predators much larger than themselves. Any potential threat close to a nest site is subject to warning calls, displays showing the red epaulets, and dive bombing from a male willing to use his beak as a weapon. Threats may include crows, hawks, raccoons, and people.

Red-winged Blackbird song and call recorded in Moraine Park in Rocky Mountain National Park. Note that Western Chorus Frogs and the buzz of a hummingbird flying by can also be heard in the recording.

The red-winged blackbird is one of the most prolific species in the U.S., and yet their populations have declined an estimated 30% in the last 50 years. Some of this is due to intentional poisoning of large flocks that have often been perceived as a threat to corn and wheat granaries. Urban development continues to contribute to loss of habitat. Other causes for this decline are climate-based including late spring cold snaps that may kill off expected insect populations used for food and additional acreage under threat of wildfires due to warming temperatures.

In spring, the males sing several melodies followed by their signature drawn-out, raspy trill. If you have any wetland areas nearby, visit these to observe their courting and breeding behaviors or attract them to your backyards with their favorite foods. They generally feed on the ground or from a platform feeder. In early spring, they like sunflower seeds, cracked corn, millet, oats and peanut hearts. As insect populations arrive, birds will move into wetland areas to lay eggs and raise their young.

Sandhill Cranes

For the past week, we have been hearing warbling sounds from high overhead as sandhill cranes return to their spring breeding areas from their winter stay in Mexico and the southern U.S. Even though their large size makes it possible to see these birds for long distances, they fly at such high altitudes that their size looks deceptively tiny, making them hard to find in bright daylight skies. Flying in a ‘V’-shaped pattern, flocks from a dozen to several hundred noisy birds pass by repeatedly during the day.

Sandhill crane, *Antigone canadensis* by Brendan Lally

Sandhill cranes, Antigone canadensis, are classified into five subspecies. Lesser sandhill cranes, A.c. canadensis, and greater sandhill cranes, A.c. tabida, both overwinter in Florida and Mexico. In spring, they migrate north to breeding grounds in the northern U.S. and across Canada into the Arctic, Alaska and northeast Siberia. There are two separate flyways, one from Florida bearing slightly northwest and passing through Indiana and Illinois. The second is from Mexico heading due north through Texas, Nebraska, and Colorado. Three quarters of all the cranes will pass through the Sand Hills region of Nebraska from which their name is derived. This flock, crossing the Platte River area in spring, is comprised of 250,000 to 500,000 birds. There are three small populations of non-migratory birds named for their respective locations including the Florida sandhill, A.c. pratensis; the Cuban sandhill A.c. nesiotes, and the Mississippi sandhill, A.c. pulla.

Sandhills are large birds, standing between 3’6″ and 5′ tall. Their broad wingspans of up to six feet provide enough power to lift their considerable weight, for a bird, of six to fourteen pounds. They have a small head, long straight bill, a long neck, and a short tail covered by drooping feathers called a “bustle”. Cranes are slate gray with pale cheeks and black legs. Adults display a bright red crown and some rusty tones in their backs from mud used in preening.

Sandhill cranes in flight by Karen & Brad Emerson

Birds fly during the day when the sun is up and air currents are strongest. The birds will use thermals, a column of air that is heated by the sun and rises upwards, to carry them aloft. As cranes ascend, they are searching for air currents blowing in the direction they want to fly. Typically, they will fly between 4,000 and 5,000 feet high, but may ride a thermal all the way up 12,000 feet. Cranes are able to cover 150 to 400 miles each day at speeds of 15 to 50 miles per hour.

Sandhill cranes in flight by NPS Shan Burson

Upon reaching their summer breeding grounds, both sexes will engage in courtship displays that includes a dance involving outstretched wings and head pumping, bowing and leaping into the air. Males and females will call in unison as part of their bonding. They mate for life, only taking another partner if one dies. A normal life span is a little over twenty years; the oldest recorded bird was 36 years 7 months old. Females may begin breeding as early as age two, but most are seven years old and up. They will lay 1-2 eggs, but normally only one survives. The juvenile, called a ‘colt’, will remain with the parents for 10-12 months, until leaving for their own life the spring following their birth.

Sandhill cranes feeding in marsh by NPS & MSU Acoustic Atlas-Jennifer Jerrett

Fossils found in Nebraska date from the Miocene period about ten million years ago. The bone structure of the fossils is the same as what is found in today’s birds, making the sandhill crane one of the oldest species of birds. In the late 19th century, they were hunted for the wild meat market until they were considered extirpated east of the Mississippi River. The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, passed with support of several early conservationists, is considered to be the critical step that saved the sandhill crane. Current populations are doing well, but growing slowly since only one chick is born annually. Conservation of all five species, especially the non-migratory birds, is tied to the preservation of wetlands for migratory staging and breeding.

Now is the time of year to get outside in late morning through the afternoon and listen for their warble, then see these great flocks heading northward overhead. To learn more, take a look at the International Crane Foundation website at: https://www.savingcranes.org/

Bird Nests

Winter is quickly turning into spring in our area. Freezing temperatures that were here just two weeks ago have passed, and daytime temperatures are warm with temperatures often staying above freezing overnight. In the local bird communities, we are beginning to hear males singing for mates. This will begin the cycle of courtship, mating, nest building and raising a new family.

As birds evolved from cold-blooded to warm-blooded animals several million years ago, they started to build nests to help keep their eggs warm. Researchers think that the first nests were simple piles of twigs on the ground in depressions or among rocky or sheltered areas. The first nests built off the ground were also made from loosely arranged twigs. There are species today who still use both of these types of nests.

Savannah Sparrow nest by Kristine Sowl, USFWS

Nests have several functions. They create a place to hide and guard the eggs from predators. They provide protection for the parent who remains with the eggs while incubation takes place. They create a place where incubation is easier in variable weather conditions. Eggs can be kept warmer and out of the wind and rain. Many nests are built in places that are already sheltered, such as lower branches of trees where wind effects are less, under large limbs or next to tree trunks that provide protection from both wind and rain. In urban areas, as well as woodlands containing a heavy shrub layer, most nests are less than ten feet off the ground. The most complex nest construction is that of a cup nest, built of mud and grass, in a tree fork or hanging from a branch or plastered to the side of a building.

Robins build a cup nest of twigs and mud in the fork of a tree or on a horizontal branch close to the trunk. Sparrows, of all species, make small cups of grass built either on or near the ground. Goldfinches build a small nest lined with soft milkweed or grasses in the crotch of a tree. Hairy and downy woodpeckers, like all woodpeckers, prefer holes in trees. Hairy woodpeckers will drill an oval-shaped hole in a dead branch of a living tree, while downy woodpeckers drill a perfect circle in a branch of a dead tree. Most woodpecker holes face east or south under a branch to gather warmth from the sun and protection from the rain. Geese build a large nest on the ground near water, typically lined with down for warmth and comfort.

Hairy woodpecker nest by Kameron Perensovich

Finding nests in late spring and throughout the summer can be quite difficult. You may try to follow a bird back to its nest, but many nests are only built by one partner, and you could follow the wrong one and be disappointed. Many birds will build a nest in one place, but will forage for food in an entirely different location. If you should walk near a nest, birds will sing or make a display to distract you. Getting out at this time of the year lets you see where many of last year’s nests were located. Take a walk before leaves are out and see how many nests you can still find from last year.

Want to learn more? There are many field guides that will have information on building nests and nesting behaviors. You may want to consider a specialty volume such as “Eastern Bird Nests” by Peterson Field Guides for explicit information on nests of all kinds.

Turnover

Area ponds have been frozen for the last several weeks due to the extremely cold temperatures we have experienced. But, thawing started last weekend which initiates turnover, the mixing of pond water as surface temperatures change with the progression of the seasons. This process happens several times each year, and has profound effects on the insects, amphibians, fish and other wildlife that live in these waters year-round.

Water can exist as a gas, a liquid, or a solid depending on its temperature. Water density and its capacity for carrying oxygen also changes with temperature. Like most other liquids and gases, cold water is heavier, denser and can hold more oxygen than warm water. However, water has a unique property in that it reaches maximum density at 39˚F (4˚C). As water gets colder, it expands, becoming lighter weight and less dense. At 32˚F (0˚C), water freezes into a solid, crystalline structure called ice, which floats on top of the denser water below. This property makes it possible for wildlife to survive below the ice.

During summer, deeper bodies of water will have layers differentiated by temperature. The top layer is warmed by the sun and atmosphere and is the warmest, with layers getting progressively cooler as the pond gets deeper. Plant matter that falls in the pond will start the process of decomposition, using light and oxygen. As decomposing material sinks to the bottom where there is less light, this process can rapidly use all of the oxygen in the lower layers. Most animal life is found in the upper layers at this time of year.

Painted Turtle, *Chrysemys picta* by Steve Hinshaw

The top layer of water is constantly picking up oxygen from wind and wave action. As atmospheric temperatures start to drop in autumn, the top layer becomes colder, denser and able to carry more oxygen. As winter progresses and temperatures continue to drop, the denser, heavier water accumulates on the bottom of the pond. Aquatic species will move to this highly-oxygenated layer to spend the winter. In spring, as ice melts, the top layers of the pond pick up more oxygen from wind and wave action. As water temperatures at the surface start to climb, approaching 39˚F (4˚C), the layering effect may disappear for a short period as the entire pond mixes to a uniform temperature and density. Wildlife will start to move toward surface areas, finding well-oxygenated water everywhere in the pond. Layering will return as top layers warm more rapidly than underlying water.

American Bullfrog, *Lithobates catesbeianus* by James Harding

Northern Leopard Frog, *Lithobates pipiens* by James Harding

In Dupage County, Northern Leopard Frogs, Lithobates pipiens, American Bullfrogs, Lithobates catesbeianus, and adult Painted Turtles, Chrysemys picta, all spend the winter underwater. Painted Turtles burrow into the mud at the bottom. They slow their metabolism down to where they only need a small amount of oxygen each day. The blood vessels in their butts are very close to the skin, and they are able to absorb oxygen from the water directly into their bloodstream. They can remain in this state for 3-4 months. Northern Leopard Frogs and American Bullfrogs also slow down their metabolisms and have a similar ability to absorb oxygen through the skin into the bloodstream. They rest on the bottom, not immersing themselves in the mud because this would prevent the oxygen rich water from being in contact with their skin.

There are many factors that affect turnover and the availability of oxygen-rich water for the animals that overwinter under the ice. A mild winter may not freeze over the ponds, leaving the water well mixed and oxygenated throughout the season. Topography of the land surrounding a pond is very important. Open ponds that receive a lot of sunlight tend to turn over rapidly and often, and will have a shorter period under ice with lots of oxygen-rich water available. Ponds closed in by land or forest canopy will experience much less wind and wave action resulting in little turnover and smaller amounts of oxygen in the water. As spring starts to arrive, be on the lookout for changing conditions as wildlife starts to emerge.

Bee Fascinated

There is a lot of snow on the ground around Chicago, and temperatures are in the deep freeze. But there are hundreds of bees in nests spread over our landscape that are all comfortably feeding on the honey they have stored away for the winter. How do bees create this great store of food?

Bees forage for nectar and pollen among the many flowers in our backyards. Nectar, a sugary fluid secreted by plants to attract bees and other pollinators, is sipped by worker bees for quick energy. It is also collected and brought back to the nest to be mixed with enzymes secreted by the bees to form honey. Pollen, a fine, powdery substance used in flower reproduction, is composed of amino acids, vitamins and fat that are all essential for bees. Together with honey, it can be stored for long periods in the nest to provide food for winter.

Bee with full pollen baskets by DonArnold

When visiting a flower for nectar, a bee collects pollen on the hair covering its body. They will brush the pollen from the hair into collection baskets on their legs. A bee will visit from 100 to 1000 flowers to get a full load of pollen before returning to the nest to deposit it. A single load takes 30-60 minutes to collect, and the bee will make an average of 10 trips a day. There are thousands of bees foraging every day, and as each bee enters a flower patch, she can be most efficient if she knows which flowers have a full load of nectar and pollen available.

Birds’ Foot Trefoil, *Lotus corniculatus* by Robert H Mohlenbrock

Borage, *Borago officinalis* by Scamperdale, 2009

Flowers are constantly refilling their nectar tubes during daylight hours. Different flowers produce nectar at different rates from two minutes for borage, Borago officinalis, to almost 24 hours for bird’s foot trefoil, Lotus corniculatus. The nectar is not visible, located in a long, slender tube at the base of the flower. A bee will crawl into the flower and drink from the tube using her long tongue. Foraging bees will not land on a flower that has recently been emptied of nectar, but how do they know which flowers to skip?

All insects are covered with an oil giving each species a particular scent. Studies show that after carefully washing the feet of several bees in a mild solution and painting this solution on flowers full of nectar, foraging bees avoid these flowers. The bees can smell the scent left by a previous visitor, can tell how old the scent is, and know how long that particular flower species takes to refill the nectar. Footprint odor has also been identified as an aid to the bees when they return to their nest. Landing close by the opening, bees walk the last short span, using scent to guide them to the exact spot of the nest opening.

IL Farm road with mowed edges, by R Boed

Bees require large numbers of flowers for nectar and pollen to feed their colony. They have thrived quite well up until the last hundred years when there has been a shift toward fewer flowers in both farmland and urban areas. In the agricultural areas, before mechanized plowing, many fields were bordered by flowering plant species. Since the automated plow, borders have been removed in favor of planting as much crop as possible. Along country roads, flowering edges are often mowed. In urban areas, the popular movement toward more lawn has also removed many flowering plants, especially in city parks and other recreation areas. These changes greatly reduce the amounts of pollen and nectar available to bees. You can make a difference in your own backyards by planting flower beds or areas of ground cover using flowering species.

Winter Tree ID, pt.2

Villages, public parks, and forest preserves in our area contain thousands of trees for our enjoyment. Being able to identify some or all of these can make our walks more fun. In the last blog, I identified several tree characteristics that can be used in tree identification in the winter. Here are some of the more common trees you may find in this area, along with their winter identification characteristics.

Silver Maple bark, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Silver Maple flower bud, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Silver Maple twig, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Silver maple, Acer saccharinum, is a native Illinois tree with bright yellow/green fall leaf colors. When looking at a twig, the terminal and lateral buds will all appear slightly reddish in hue and rounded or pointed. Remember that lateral buds are where new flowers or leaves will grow. If the buds are clustered, this is where flowers will bloom on the twig. The twig is slender and gray to red in color, with buds arranged opposite one another. If you scratch the twig with a fingernail and take a sniff, there is an unpleasant odor. The bark is smooth on young trees, becoming shaggy on older trees.

Hackberry bark, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Hackberry twig, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

The hackberry, Celtis occidentalis, a favorite street tree, is a large, fast growing tree that can reach heights of 40 to 60 feet. Native to Illinois, the hackberry may live for 150 years or more. Twigs in winter lack a terminal bud, but have lateral buds that are brown, flat, and triangular in shape. Lateral buds display an alternate arrangement along very thin twigs. As each new twig grows at a slight angle from the bud, branches take on a zig-zag appearance. The bark, smooth and light gray, is covered with light colored lenticels, and is often times covered with wart-like bumps, their density being greatly variable. Cutting open a twig reveals a banded pith with visible cavities.

White Oak bark, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

White Oak buds, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

White oak, Quercus alba, is one of our most popular native hardwood trees. The state tree of Illinois, white oak is used for building dozens of items including cabinets, watertight barrels, floors, caskets, and pianos. In winter, look for bark that is light gray to silver in color. The bark can be quite variable from tight, shallow ridges to broad, loose flaky plating. Many trees exhibiting different bark formation on different parts of the trunk. Twigs display small, rounded, and reddish buds. Lateral buds are alternate on twigs that are slender, smooth and slightly reddish in appearance. Terminal buds are clustered with broad, hairless scales.

Black Walnut leaf scar, by Bruce Kitchoff,c-2015

Black Walnut pith, by Bruce Kitchoff,c-2015

Black walnut, Juglans nigra, is a slow growing tree with a large, shady canopy and rich, dark-brown hardwood. The wood will not warp, can be polished to a high luster, and is highly prized for furniture and veneers. The buds are gray with a light, fuzzy coating of hairs and arranged alternately along the twig. The leaf scars are heart-shaped and contain a very distinct bundle scar that looks like a “monkey face”. The pith is chambered, a distinctive trait found only in black walnut and butternut trees. The bark on this tree is dark brown, with high ridges and deep furrows often arrayed in a diamond-shaped pattern.

Bitternut Hickory bark, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Bitternut Hickory buds, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Bitternut hickory, Carya cordiformis, also a member of the walnut family, is a medium sized tree, growing 50′-80′ tall with a narrow canopy. This wood burns with an intense heat and is often used for smoking ham, bacon, and other meats due to the distinctive flavor imparted by the smoke. Twigs are thin, shiny, and greenish- to grayish-brown. The alternately arranged buds are bright yellow to sulfur-yellow, covered by two to four large scales that join one another along the edges without overlapping. The bark is light gray, appearing in a diamond-pattern with very shallow ridges.

These trees are some of the most commonly planted in urban communities and found in area forest preserves. All are native to Illinois, are hardy in urban settings, and provide food and shelter for many native wildlife species. Winter identification characteristics are easily visible and a great place to learn how to use a key. Take a walk and get started soon!

Winter Tree ID, pt.1

Many people can identify an oak tree or maple tree during the summer, but how can you ID a tree without leaves? There are several basic characteristics used in tree identification. Many of these are readily visible in winter. When looking at a tree, inspect several of the twigs, the smallest branches on a tree, to rule out any anomalies that may be present on only one. Different characteristics may appear on more than one tree, but when taken all together, a unique combination of traits will identify a single species. As you read the following, a drawing of a twig and all its relevant parts can be referenced at https://mekwamooks.wordpress.com/winter-id/.

The terminal bud, located at the tip of the twig, is where new growth will start from in the spring. Note its size relative to the twig, the bud’s shape, and whether or not it is covered with scales. Buds may be naked, not having any scales, or covered with overlapping scales, or scales may meet at their edges. Lateral buds are arranged along the length of the twig, and they are the site from which a new leaf or flower will grow next year. They will appear on the sides of the twig as you move along it. The arrangement may be opposite, when two buds are at the same point on either side of the twig, or alternate, when a bud on one side is spaced a few inches along the twig from the next bud on the other side.

Lenticels are specialized cells where gas exchange takes place during the growing season. They appear as light or dark spots along the twig. Note the color, size and amount found on a twig, or whether there are none. Running your fingers over the surface of the twig allows you to tell if the lenticels are smooth or rough and raised.

When leaves fall off the tree, they leave behind a leaf scar. Take note of the size and shape of a scar. Is it round, oval, heart-shaped or some other shape? Inside the leaf scar is the bundle scar, where the phloem and xylem layers that transport water and food entered each leaf. The arrangement of the bundle scar in addition to the size and shape of both scars is very helpful in determining the tree species.

The pith inside the twig is another part to use in identification. You will need to break off a twig and slice it lengthwise with a sharp pocketknife to see the center structure of the twig. It can be solid, hollow, spongy or chambered. This structure is found in young branches and is used to store and transport nutrients throughout the plant. As branches mature, storage and transportation will move to the xylem and phloem layers found just underneath the bark.

Peeling bark-Shagbark Hickory, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Smooth bark-Musclewood, by Jerry Jenkins, Forest Atlas Project

Warty bark-Hackberry, by Robert H. Mohlenbrock, hosted by the USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

Bark, another highly visible feature, comes in a variety of colors from gray to tan to dark brown to black. Many species may have a hint of red tones. Identifying the texture of bark is very important. Is it smooth to your touch? Is it covered with warty patches? Some trees have bark that peels off, and it is important to note how the peel starts. Is it the top and bottom ends of each strip that are loose, or the middle that is pulling off to the right or left? Is the bark paper thin and coming off in loosely curled sheets? Thicker bark has a much rougher appearance. Does the bark run in ridges and furrows? Does it appear to be a diamond-shaped pattern on the tree? Some bark looks blocky, with no discernable pattern. Are the blocks flat to the tree or are there deep furrows between the blocks?

Blocky bark-White Oak, by Daniel O. Todd, hosted by the USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

Furrowed bark-Bur Oak, by W.D. Brush, hosted by the USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

As you accumulate clues, you can match them against identification guides. A special type of guide, known as a key, will help you identify many of the species found in a given geographic area covered by the key. Keys present a series of questions, each with a limited number of choices to select from. An example is “Winter Tree Finder” by May Theilgaard Watts and Tom Watts, “for identifying deciduous trees in winter.” This book uses a series of questions about twigs to lead the user to a correct identification.

There are many keys and field guides available, but remember to choose ones that pertain to the time of year you are in. Keys for flowers and leaves will not be of great value in winter, and many of the characteristics discussed above, such as scars and buds, will not be available to view in summer. I urge you to get out and try this fun activity before spring.

Publications to get you started:

Winter Tree Finder	May Theilgaard Watts & Tom Watts	Nature Study Guild, 1970
Trees of Illinois	Linda Kershaw	Lone Pine Publishing, 2007
Keys to the Trees of The Chicago Region	Ross C. Clark	The Morton Arboretum, 1988
Bark	Michael Wojtech	University Press of New England, 2011
The Tree Identification Book	George W.D. Symonds	Harper Collins, 1958
Twig Parts Explained	Volunteers @ Me-kwa-mooks Park, Seattle	https://mekwamooks.wordpress.com/winter-id/

Backyard Birds

This year’s Cornell Ornithology Lab’s Feederwatch Project began twelve weeks ago, and we have been counting the birds in the backyard every Sunday & Monday. We have seen nineteen different species using our seven feeders, one heated birdbath, trees and bushes, and a pond surrounded by native forbs and grasses. Much of the pond freezes on particularly cold nights, but the mallard population keeps a portion open all the time. Birds visit the feeders several times each day. Every species exhibits unique feeding behaviors, using one or more of the feeders which include a covered tray, an open tray, a tube for black oil sunflower seeds, an open mesh tube for nyjer seeds, an upside down cage for suet, and seed placed out on open ground. This attracts a large mix of birds for us to watch.

Chickadees and red-bellied woodpeckers may eat or cache their food. A bird flies to a feeder, takes a food item and immediately flies to a nearby covered perch, usually in one of our pine trees. The bird may store the item in a cavity in the bark of the tree or eat the item immediately. Hairy and downy woodpeckers eat at suet feeders, but are very vigilant. After landing on the feeder, they will spend several minutes checking all directions for possible threats before beginning to eat. Sparrows and cardinals select different types of seeds. Northern cardinals have a large, heavy beak making it easy for them to break open seeds like striped sunflower that have a thick outer shell. Sparrows have small beaks and eat correspondingly smaller seeds, including millet, safflower and black oil sunflower seeds, which have a thin outer shell.

Goldfinchs’ favorite seed is nyjer, a small, oil-rich seed from an invasive plant native to Ethiopia. Imported from overseas, the seeds are put through a heat-sterilization process prior to distribution in the United States to ensure that invasive plants do not grow from the seed. House sparrows take small seeds from the woodpecker blend in the covered tray house feeder. Mourning doves and juncos feed on open ground and are found cleaning up various seeds that fall around all of our feeders. Sparrows and mourning doves also enjoy white millet, a small, starchy grain that provides a nutritious meal, served in an open tray.

Occasionally, a red-tail hawk, sharp-shinned hawk, or Cooper’s hawk buzzes the yard. These birds are top predators in the area and feed on the smaller birds flying to and from feeders. Hawks will grab a smaller bird either in flight or from a feeder, grasping their bodies with strong talons, that are also used to kill their prey by repeated puncturing. The hawks will fly to a nearby perch, high up in one of the larger trees, to eat. Their attacks are swift and usually come from a direction that is not easily monitored by birds on the feeders. Whether the hawk is successful or not, there are no birds to observe for a long time after one flies through the yard.

Projects, such as Feederwatch, have gathered data on various bird behaviors for many years. Combined observations from all of North America help to identify long-term trends in species distribution, which food items attract each species, and environmental factors that affect the birds. Observations and anecdotal evidence provide insight into species that travel and feed together, how habitat is used for food and cover, and group communication.

The Feederwatch Project website, at https://feederwatch.org/, contains information on a variety of topics including summaries and graphs of the data being currently collected, as well as all past data. Click on the EXPLORE button to access bird count summaries, trend graphs, and more scientific information. eBird, another observation project hosted by Cornell Ornithology Labs, also contains an EXPLORE page with species and hotspot maps, bar charts showing population distribution over time, photos and sound recordings. Try accessing the page for eBird / Explore / Explore Hotspots, at https://ebird.org/hotspots; change the date in the middle top bar to “Jan, current year” and scroll in until only the Chicago area is displayed. Hover your mouse over any one hotspot to see the number of species reported in January at that location. Then consider signing up to create your own observational hotspot!

If you are interested in making your own bird observations, consider signing up for the Great Backyard Bird Count happening next weekend, February 12th to February 15th. Click on the link below for more information and to sign up as a participant.

Fun sites to explore:

https://feederwatch.org/ Project FeederWatch home
https://ebird.org/home eBird Home
https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/ Cornell Lab of Ornithology home
https://www.birdcount.org/ The Great Backyard Bird Count home Feb 12-15, 2021

Sap & Syrup

With cold winter mornings becoming the routine, hot breakfasts are welcome in our household. Pancakes, waffles and french toast all have at least one common ingredient – maple syrup. Most varieties of syrup come from maple trees. Sycamore, walnut, butternut, basswood, birch, and hickory trees also produce syrup.

Maple syrup is unique to North America and is one of the oldest known crops, first made by the indigenous peoples in this region, although exactly when and how it was discovered remains a mystery. Sap from sugar maple, Acer saccharum, red maple, Acer rubrum, or black maple, Acer nigrum, is used in the production of maple syrup. A maple tree needs to be about 12″ in diameter at breast height, or about 40 years old, to produce enough sap to be economically viable for syrup production. Sap from a tree is between 0.5% and 10% sugar. Syrup, a product created by processing the sap, must contain a minimum sugar content of 66.7% to be sold commercially. A single tap that yields 10 gallons of sap is enough to make about one quart of syrup. Raw sap has little or no taste. Through the process of boiling off the water content, sugar, in the form of sucrose, is concentrated as the mixture thickens. The unique flavor of each variety comes from the mixture of concentrated sugar and nitrogenous chemicals present in the sap.

Sap must flow out of the tree in order to collect it. Trees have two layers of cells to transport food and water: the phloem and the xylem. Immediately under the bark, the phloem transports food for the tree in both directions, up and down. The xylem, an inner layer, transports water up the tree through a series of tubes and cell chambers. In the transpiration process, special cells called stomata, located on the undersides of leaves, open to take in carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. At the same time, water is lost by evaporation to the outside air. This creates negative tension in the xylem moving water by pulling it up to each leaf. Another factor affecting the xylem is root pressure, created by accumulating minerals in rain water in the soil. This results in positive tension on the water in the soil and pushes water into roots and xylem. In winter, when there are no leaves and no rain, neither of these processes are active.

Tap and Bucket on Sugar Maple, by Nicolas Longchamps, 2008

While sap flow in winter is still not fully understood, we know that it requires temperatures to cycle between nighttime freezing and daytime thawing. In sap-producing trees, the cell chambers in the xylem contain various gases and the tubes between the cells contain sap (i.e. water plus nutrients). As temperatures drop at night, some of the gas is absorbed by the sap creating empty space that acts as a vacuum to pull in more water from soil below the freeze line. As temperatures continue to drop below freezing, sap turns to ice, increasing in volume and trapping the remaining gases under pressure in each cell chamber. During the day, as temperatures inside the tree rise above freezing, the ice melts and the pressurized gases push the sap out any opening in the tree.

Understanding the physiological cycles of each tree species is vital to obtaining good sap production without causing harm. Tapping is not pruning, and no pruning should be done to “bleeder” trees until early summer. Individual trees that are widely spaced and have better access to the sun during the growing season produce higher sugar content. Sap flow is highly dependent on late winter / early spring weather. Water must be available to tree roots and temperatures must cycle daily between freezing and thawing. To make syrup, a higher sugar content requires less processing, and the right combination of nutrients will produce great taste. I hope you all get a chance to enjoy the many flavors of this unique food.

For more information on how to tap without damaging the tree, click on: DaveyTreeBlog

Citizen Science

Citizen science happens when the public takes part in the collection of data, and scientists use that data to advance scientific knowledge. As participants, we collect data, see the results, and learn how data contributes to research efforts. There are many projects running at any given time that you may contribute to. Below are several that you may consider joining, including sponsors, websites and a brief description of each. These projects are advancing science and are fun and interesting for participants.

Green bottle fly, *Lucilia sericata* by Don Arnold, 2020

Journey North, sponsored by the University of Wisconsin Arboretum, has been engaging citizen scientists for over 25 years. This effort tracks migrations and seasonal changes. A variety of species are tracked including robins, orioles, earthworms, red-winged blackbirds, frogs, barn swallows, and others. Seasonal changes include sunlight, weather, and leaf-out. As data is entered, it is available immediately for viewing. Observations can be entered in text, pictures or on maps. Site users are able to view migrations happening in real-time. This project has simple to use screens and good online support.

Monarch on Mexican Sunflower, DonArnold 2020

I-Pollinate, sponsored by the University of Illinois, has three separate tracking projects. The first project identifies how monarchs and caterpillars respond to the many variables in gardens and landscapes. A second project, that is closely related, recognizes that home gardens provide a wide variety of flowers for pollinators. This project identifies which ornamental annuals are best at attracting butterflies, bees and flies. These first two projects are often done together and will require the monitor to plant an appropriate pollinator garden bed from instructions provided by the program coordinators.

Bumble Bee on Buttonbush, DonArnold 2020

The third project in I-Pollinate is also part of the overall Bee Spotter series of projects, sponsored by the University of Illinois. The Bee Spotter program collects data on area bee populations from citizen scientists using photography. The I-Pollinate project is specifically centered on honey bees and bumble bees, two of our most prolific pollinator insects. Data for all Bee Spotter programs will be used to establish population baselines and will be included in educational efforts to raise public awareness on the diversity of pollinator species and the ecosystem services they provide.

From The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation, Bumble Bee Watch is another program gathering data on bees and pollination services. This project also uses photography to build a virtual bumble bee specimen library. Experts review each photo to verify identification and catalog all location and description data provided. Data is used to determine population status, the bees’ ecological needs, and to identify possible locations of rare or endangered species.

White Trout Lily, flowering, DonArnold 2020

Monitoring is not always about wildlife. There are natural processes that are tracked with the goal of learning more about habitat, the role played by each process, and the ecosystem services provided. A few of these projects include:

CoCoRaHS (ko-ko-razz), Community Collaborative Rain, Hail and Snow Network, a grassroots effort by people of all ages to measure precipitation in all its forms – rain, hail, and snow. Simple tools and instructions can be found at the website.
Globe At Night, an international project to measure sources of light pollution and how they affect night-sky observations. Data is available for use by local organizations worldwide working to reduce the many impacts of artificial lighting at night.
BudBurst tracks the timing of plant life cycle events including leaf-out, flowering, fruiting, color-change and senescence. These are all aspects of the science of phenology, being used to study biological events related to changes in season and climate.

Take a look at these or find others by searching the internet for “citizen science projects” to find a project that interests you.

More information on each of the programs described above can be found at project websites:

Journey North	University of Wisconsin Arboretum	https://journeynorth.org/
I-Pollinate	University of Illinois	https://ipollinate.illinois.edu/
Bee Spotter	University of Illinois	https://beespotter.org/
Bumble Bee Watch	The Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation	https://www.bumblebeewatch.org/
CoCoRaHS	CoCoRaHS	https://www.cocorahs.org/
Globe At Night	Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, National Science Foundation	https://www.globeatnight.org/
BudBurst	Chicago Botanic Gardens	https://budburst.org/

Winter Night Sky

How many stars can you see from your backyard tonight? In a dark sky, far away from any light, about 4500 stars can be seen with our naked eye. In contrast, when viewing night skies from a city like Chicago, we can see only about 35 stars. Adding binoculars or a small telescope will greatly increase the number of stars and the detail you can see.

Orion constellation, by G.Tzevelekos, Nikon and StarAdventurer

Fall, winter, and spring, during the months of standard time, is called the “observing season” by astronomers. Winter months give us long nights and short days. Earth’s northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun, significantly reducing the length of time for morning and evening twilight. At this time of year, it gets dark late in the afternoon, providing many hours of stargazing time. Also in winter, cold air holds less moisture than warm air, yielding clearer skies without any haze.

Factors to consider when choosing a time and location to go stargazing is the brightness of other lights in the area. On cloudless nights, a full moon can be bright enough to light up the sky and hide a majority of the stars from view. Observing the night sky is best during the few days before, during and after a new moon, which occurred this month just a couple of days ago, on January 12th. Other sources of light obscuring our visibility are man-made. The farther away from these areas you can get, the better your observing experience will be. This is a spectacular time of the month when, depending on your location, hundreds of stars may be visible with the naked eye. With assistance from binoculars or a telescope, faint objects such as galaxies, nebulae and star clusters will also be visible.

Orion constellation, by CSunday, Canon 18mm wide angle lens (naked eye)

When the northern hemisphere is experiencing summer, at night the Earth faces towards the center of our galaxy, with the 300 billion stars of the Milky Way. In winter, Earth has traveled to the opposite end of its orbit, and during the night, it faces outward towards the farther reaches of the galaxy. Stars are being displayed against a much darker background, making it easier to see individual stars, constellations and planets. Many sites out of the city, especially State or National Parks and recreation areas, have far fewer visitors in winter months, contributing less light pollution and less competition for viewing locations. Check for hours on their websites.

What’s visible right now in our neighborhood? There are several good online sites with information for what to view and when to look for it. Plus they provide good descriptions and other information. But the best way to learn about this aspect of nature is to get out and see it yourself. Check the weather for clearer nights and check some of the sites listed below for moon phases in the coming weeks.

Planets that are easily viewed tonight include Mars from sunset to 1:00am in the west-south-west; Uranus in the south drifting westward from sunset to 1:30a; Neptune in the south-west from sunset to about 9:00pm. Uranus and Neptune are very faint, but your view can be greatly improved with binoculars of 7x power or better. Mercury, Saturn and Jupiter can be seen with your naked eye, clustered low in the west-northwest sky, in the constellation Capricornus, for about an hour after sunset for the next few days.

Here is a list of websites with basic information that can get you started:

Lunar calendar for Chicago including dates for each phase, moonrise and moonset times https://www.timeanddate.com/moon/phases/usa/chicago
Planets visible today in Chicago including rise and set times and direction https://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/night/usa/chicago
Planetariums in Illinois (be sure to check websites for hours/availability):
- WVHS Planetarium Aurora http://planetarium.ipsd.org/ Strickler Planetarium Bourbonnais https://strickler.olivet.edu/ William M. Staerkel Planetarium Springfield https://www.parkland.edu/Audience/Community-Business/Parkland-Presents/Planetarium Adler Planetarium Chicago https://www.adlerplanetarium.org/ Herbert Trackman Planetarium Joliet https://www.jjc.edu/about-jjc/places-interest/herbert-trackman-planetarium Illinois State University Planetarium Normal http://www2.phy.ilstu.edu/~trw/planet.html John Deere Planetarium Rock Island https://www.augustana.edu/locations/john-deere-planetarium-and-carl-gamble-observatory
Illinois state parks, wildlife management and recreation areas (be sure to check sebsites for hours/availability): https://www.stateparks.com/illinois_parks_and_recreation_destinations.html

Eagles

There are numerous species of birds that spend the winter in Illinois, but two that are infrequent visitors to northeastern Illinois can be easily seen in other areas of the state during this season. The Bald Eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus and the Golden Eagle, Aquila chrysaetos. They are both members of the family Accipitridae, which includes birds of prey that have broad wings and short tails which produce a distinctive flight pattern consisting of several short wing strokes followed by a long glide. Members of this genus are all predators and use their talons to kill by repeatedly puncturing their prey. They are able to stretch their long legs to keep the prey away from their head and eyes for safety. All members of this family have fearsome-looking, large, curved, sharply pointed beaks which are used strictly for plucking and tearing the food into bite-sized chunks.

Eagles form long-term pair bonds and both contribute to building their nests, constructed from twigs and vegetation, which are located in tree tops or on cliff ledges. Softer, finer vegetation is used to line the nests so eggs do not drop through the twig cavities, and the vegetation provides insulation to keep the nest dry and warm. Starting at about five feet in diameter, nests are reused over many years and may grow to nine feet or more and weigh several hundred pounds. Eagles typically have more than one nest in an area and may move to another site if they feel threatened or they may use other nests for resting closer to hunting areas. Eagles that migrate into the southern United States start nest construction and cleanup as early as November. In Illinois, nest construction takes place in January and February.

Golden Eagles are the only member found in Illinois of the group known as “true eagles”. They are closely related to buteos, a genus of broad-winged, soaring hawks. Their main habitat includes mountains and rugged terrain where temperature and wind conditions are conducive to creating numerous updrafts. They have a light brown head with a dark brown body, brown wings, and a tail of light grey-brown with a dark brown band across the end. Juveniles may have white spots under the wings in flight, making it easy to misidentify them as Bald Eagles. Golden Eagles hunt from the air for small mammals and flying birds. They are mostly migratory visitors to Illinois, but a small population can be found in winter in the far southern part of the state.

Bald Eagles are members of the group called “fish eagles,” closely related to sea-eagles on other continents, but not at all closely related to Golden Eagles. Adults have a dark brown body with a bright white head and tail, yellow feet and beak, and pale yellow eyes. Juveniles have a dark head with mottled brown and white bellies and do not sport the distinctive white head until they are at least three years old. A mature adult stands about three feet tall with a wingspan of 80″-90″. This species is found only in North America with a population of about 70,000 birds of whom half live in Alaska. Bald Eagles are always found near large bodies of water that support the abundant fish and waterfowl they feed on.

As rivers, streams and lakes in Canada and parts of the northern United States freeze and open water becomes scarce, Bald Eagles move southward looking for open water to support fishing. The Illinois Department of Natural Resources estimates that there are about 3,100 eagles that reside in Illinois in winter, the largest group in the lower 48 states. They will remain in the area throughout January and February before migrating north as more northerly bodies of water begin to open during the spring thaw.

Thousands of people enjoy eagle watching during the winter months. The fourth Saturday in January is Illinois Eagle Day, a celebration of the Bald Eagle across the state. According to the DuPage Forest Preserve District, there have been several sightings in area forest preserves that have large water reservoirs including McDowell Grove, West Branch, Hidden Lake and Blackwell preserves. There are also several places along the Illinois/Iowa shores of the upper Mississippi River with great viewing opportunities. A list of many sites and celebration activities can be found at https://www2.illinois.gov/sites/eagles/Pages/EagleWatching.aspx.

Please be aware that we can easily disturb the birds by getting too close. Stress and our presence can change the behavior of the birds, possibly putting them in danger, especially during nesting periods. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service suggests maintaining a distance of about 330 feet for the birds’ comfort. I have been to several areas along major rivers. Viewing from a safe distance is exciting when you can see all of the activity including where the birds are sitting among ledges, flying out over the fishing areas, swooping low to pick up a large fish and flying back to a ledge or tall tree to eat. Consider bringing binoculars, a spotting scope, or a camera to make it a fun day.

Conifers

Conifers are one member of a group of plants known as gymnosperms, meaning ‘naked seeds’, a reference to the seed not being enclosed in an ovary or fruit. These plants do not flower, but have both male and female cones. The male cones carry pollen, which is dispersed by the wind. The female cones that come in contact with the blowing pollen will take some into the ova and produce seeds in the cone. Cones are green as they grow, turning brown as the seeds mature. When cones open, seeds are dispersed by falling to the ground or being picked up and moved by animals. In some conifer species, cones will not open until certain environmental conditions are met, namely the presence of fire. These species have serotinous cones, ones that only open when exposed to high heat. Fire also kills other plants that compete with conifers for resources such as sunlight and water, and it releases minerals from burned plants into the soil providing nutrients for new conifer seedlings.

White Spruce, *Picea glauca*, by Northern Forest Atlas Foundation

Most conifers are evergreen, although a few are deciduous. Deciduous trees lose their leaves all at the same time, when temperatures start to drop in autumn. Evergreens also lose their needles, a few at a time throughout the year, and they are quickly replaced by new growth so the tree is never bare. Evergreen needles are thin leaves found on several types of conifer including fir, spruce, and pine. Other types of conifers like juniper, cypress and cedar, have soft, scale-like needles. An examination of the needles is the best way to identify a conifer species. Whether they are stiff and sharp, or flexible and soft; bunched in groups or growing singly; and the number of needles that are in each bundle will help you to identify a specific tree species.

Austrian Pine, *Pinus nigra*, needles in sheathed pairs, by DonArnold

Climate conditions, especially temperature and precipitation, greatly influence the tree species found in any one area. Colder temperatures reduce the ability of plants to function. Deciduous plants handle this change by entering a state of dormancy until warmer temperatures arrive in spring. Precipitation in northern Illinois is generally well distributed throughout the year, although in winter, it falls as snow. Combined with a frozen soil layer, this water is not available for ready use by any plant species until the spring thaw. Evergreen species are well equipped to handle these conditions. Needles have a waxy, outer covering, while roots and stems are filled with resin, a chemical that acts as antifreeze. The general shape of the tree, with branches sloping down and out, keeps snow from accumulating and freezing on the foliage. The plants can survive very cold temperatures without damage and are able to start photosynthesizing food as soon as liquid water is available in spring. This gives evergreen species a jump on shorter growing seasons in cooler northern climates.

Austrian Pine, *Pinus nigra*, unopened seed cone, by DonArnold

Conifers in this area are used extensively by birds, mammals and insects for food and shelter. They make good habitat, providing protection from wind, rain and flying predators. A wide variety of insects call conifers home including spider mites, aphids, bark beetles and various caterpillars. Many of these insect species provide food for woodpeckers and nuthatches. Squirrel nests are well screened from wind and precipitation by evergreen boughs. During the day, many bird species like to browse among the ground litter of pine needles and fallen food. And later in the evening, that same activity is taken up by several mammals prowling the night time.

Hairy Woodpecker searching for insects on Austrian Pine, by DonArnold

There are about 700 conifer species found world-wide, and they can be found in backyards, city parks and nature areas all over DuPage County. They are most abundant in cooler climates and are important timber trees. All are softwoods, a versatile building material for mouldings, windows, flooring, paneling and plywood. They provide great backyard habitat in our area, and serve as an important natural resource for many over-wintering species in DuPage County.

Irruptions

An irruption is a birding term referring to an unexpectedly large increase in the population of a bird species into an area where they are not normally seen. Irruptions are caused by a disturbance in the natural environment of the species, many times due to a food shortage. Depending on the root cause of the disturbance, more than one bird species may be affected.

Pine Siskin, by Karen Lebing, Pocosin Lakes NWR

Mast refers to the fruit of woody plants, such as acorns, nuts and berries. In some years, plants produce larger than normal quantities of mast, and in other years the production amount is meager. Many species depend on this mast as their main food source. One theory about why the amount of seed varies suggests that in years of abundant production, the number of seeds overwhelms the number of seed-eaters, and the plants have a greater chance of successful reproduction. In years when very little seed is produced, lack of food thins out some seed-eating species and forces others to move. Many bird species rely on mast as their main food source, and when the food becomes scarce, these species move farther afield, irrupting into new locations.

In 2020, we have already experienced several irruptions across the North American continent. Cone-bearing trees in boreal forests in Canada produced small seed crops this year. There is not nearly enough mast to feed the populations of birds that spend the winter in these areas. Most of the affected species will head south into the United States, fanning out over broad areas in search of other food. Nuts, seeds and berries from other trees may replace what has been lost, but many species will be opportunistic and eat from backyard feeders when possible.

Pine Siskin, Spinus pinus, normally move into southern Canada and the northern half of the U.S. in winter. Overwhelming numbers have been reported by observation stations, especially along the east coast, and birds have been spotted as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. Their normal winter range includes northern Illinois, but not in the high numbers that we are currently observing. They are about the same size as American Goldfinch, with dark and light brown streaking covering their entire body and distinctive bright yellow wing and tail edges. Pine siskins prefer evergreen forests, but will eagerly feed on thistle seeds from feeders.

Red-breasted Nuthatch by Becky Matsubara

The Red-breasted Nuthatch, Sitta canadensis, is another species seen here in smaller numbers in winter, but also heavily affected by the reduced amount of food. This species is irrupting both north and south, with some populations heading north into Alaska, and many more individuals heading south into all parts of the United States. As with the Pine Siskin, higher numbers of birds are being reported in our area for the second winter in a row. These birds have blue-gray backs with rust-colored breasts and a black-capped head with a bright white stripe above the eye. One of our smallest birds, they have a very short tail and short, broad wings on a plump body. They prefer coniferous woods and mountain areas, but in winter, they can be seen on backyard feeders offering black-oil sunflowers seeds, suet, and peanuts.

Blue Jay, Cyanocitta cristata, annually migrates by the thousands through the Great Lakes and along the east coast heading for winter habitat in the southern U.S. Smaller populations may remain along the migration route, but this year, we are seeing greater numbers in many places. One of our largest feeder birds, they sport a large crested head and a broad, rounded tail. Blue Jays have a white or light gray belly and black and white markings against a bright blue back and head. Their preferred habitat is along forest edges, especially where there is an abundance of beechnut, hazelnut and acorns. In backyards, they are most often found on tray feeders offering peanuts, sunflower seeds and suet.

Bohemian Waxwing, Bombycilla garrulus, may not be as familiar in our urban and suburban areas, but it is also experiencing an irruptive year. These medium-sized birds are plump, with a thick neck and a short, squared off tail. They are grayish brown overall with a striking black eye mask shaded along the edges in dusky orange. The underside of the tail is rusty, and the tip is bright yellow. Secondary wings on adults have bright red wing tips. These birds move frequently in search of food sources, making them unpredictable to find; and we are at the south end of their typical winter range. Keep an eye out for flocks as they are being pushed farther afield this year in search of food.

Irruptions can be an exciting event for bird watchers who are able to observe species that migrate outside of their normal range when conditions necessitate such movements. An irruption may be difficult to identify, but if you observe larger than normal groups of any species, especially in late autumn, that is a clue that there may be an irruption in progress. Keep abreast of current bird migration monitoring at sites such as the Finch Research Network or Bird Cast.

My Nature Bookshelf

It is starting to feel like the holidays have arrived, a time for snow and lights, cross-country skiing in the woods followed by hot cocoa inside, a quiet evening with family and presents, presents, presents! My wife and I are both avid readers, so the hunt is on for each of us to find that book that will be relished but that has not yet even been contemplated. I love to browse through bookstores, especially those with both new and used volumes just waiting for me to find them. Here are some of my favorites.

City Creatures: Animal Encounters in the Chicago Wilderness, edited by Gavin Van Horn and Dave Aftandilian is full of essays and poems, accompanied by illustrations and photographs, that introduce you to a variety of species that live among us in the urban environments of northeastern Illinois. The book is divided into six sections; each introduces us to a different place that includes animal encounters. Gavin Van Horn is also the creative director and executive editor for the Center for Humans and Nature, and you can find several of his pieces framing new perceptions of the environment on their website.

Winter World: The Ingenuity of Animal Survival, and its companion volume, Summer World: A Season of Bounty, both by Bernd Heinrich are in-depth explorations of what it takes for different species to survive the environmental conditions present at different times of the year. Heinrich looks at many of the adaptations that allow animals to find appropriate shelter, warmth, food and mates in extreme conditions.

Fire and Ice by Jonathan Mingle is an investigative piece written over several years of traveling to the Himalayan region of Zanskar in northwest India. In recent years, this region has been drastically changed by drought due to disappearing glaciers. Mingle ties this in with the problems being generated by black carbon, the unburned particulate matter from fire of all types. He tells a wonderful tale of the people and their family stories, as well as how black carbon is making a huge impact on their region and the entire world.

Another section of my shelves includes books that provide a wonderful assortment of activities that can involve everything from individual investigations to gathering data for citizen science projects.

The Laws Guide to Nature Drawing and Journaling by John Muir Laws is a detailed presentation on how to make simple to complex drawings for anyone who enjoys the hobby of journaling. It includes instructions on making simple line drawings, the use of colored pencils, and working with watercolors. There are numerous examples on what to journal, gathering your thoughts in the written word and transferring your observations to pictures on a page. A fun and entertaining treatment of nature journaling.

The Amateur Naturalist by Gerald Durrell, published in 1983, or by Nick Baker, published in 2005, are both excellent books with tips and activities on observing nature. They provide information about different habitats and species, how to make observations of each, what data to record, activities that will make your time fun and rewarding, and suggestions on how your data may be used by yourself and others. The books identify tools to collect and use to make your ventures into nature fun learning experiences.

A companion volume, How To Shoot An Amateur Naturalist by Gerald Durrell, tells us how he made the television series “The Amateur Naturalist,” based on the book above. It is a humorous and fun story of film making, adventure and travel concentrating on learning natural history using a variety of the techniques and activities detailed in his book.

Another fun book is The Big Year by Mark Obmascik, also made into a motion picture starring Jack Black, Steve Martin and Owen Wilson. The book takes us on a wild romp through nature areas, backyards and wild places with the goal of counting as many bird species as possible in one calendar year. Documenting the journeys of three bird watchers taking a year out of their lives to compete for the honor of counting the most birds in one year in the U.S., this volume is a humorous and insightful story of just how passion can turn a hobby into an obsession.

The Lost Art of Reading Nature’s Signs by Tristan Gooley provides thoughtful insight on how to enhance your nature walks. Everywhere we go, there are hundreds of things to see in nature. This volume can help you learn what to look for that you may have missed in past walks. The book provides dozens of ideas about what to look at, how to discern more detail, and what questions to consider as you discover things along your way. A fun way to learn about learning as you enjoy each nature walk you take.

These books can provide a perfect starting place for a new year of activity and learning while having fun. Find one for yourself or consider a gift book for a friend who loves nature. If you have books that you have found to be insightful and interesting, or have started you on a new journey, consider posting them in the comments section for this blog. Have fun browsing!

Sun-Earth Relations

Thanksgiving has come and gone, and we are moving into late autumn and starting to think about winter snows. As we enjoy autumn activities, the earth is moving ever closer to the sun. In January, the earth will be at its closest approach to the sun than any other time of the year. So, why are we in the deep freeze at that time?

The earth’s axis is a straight line passing through both the north pole and the south pole. In relation to the sun, the axis is tilted 23.5˚ to one side. Referring to our diagram above, called “Earth Axis”, the subsolar point is where the sun’s rays directly hit the earth at right angles. The northern hemisphere is tilted away from the sun during winter in our area, when the light and warmth of the sun is striking the earth at an oblique angle, compared to the much more direct sunlight striking the earth in the southern hemisphere’s summer.

The tilt of the axis changes slightly every year causing a wobbling movement. The wobble is called axial precession and can be visualized by watching a spinning top as it moves across a floor, not quite perfectly smooth. As the top moves in circles, so does the wobble of the earth, taking about 26,000 years to return to the same orientation. Earth’s spin drifts slowly east and west, but never very far. The farthest movement observed from the center of the axial spin, since recording began in 130 B.C., has been 37 feet. This will not affect daily life but does affect GPS and satellite observations.

There are many theories about what causes axial precession, but data from the last five to seven years shows a strong possibility that movement of water around the world is responsible. Changes in the amount of water and ice can be counted as changes in mass and weight. These types of changes near the poles have no significant effect on the earth’s spin, but where these changes occur in the middle latitudes, around 45˚, greatly impacts the stability of the spin. Losses of water in the Europe-Asia-India areas has created an imbalance in mass and weight sufficient to alter earth’s spin and account for some of the recent wobble movements. There are strong correlations with other water movements back through the last 2,150 years of history.

As the earth moves through a one year orbit around the sun, the tilt of earth’s axis does not change. As shown in the diagram labeled “Earth Orbit”, this means that for a quarter of the year, the northern hemisphere is leaning towards the sun. In mid-June, the summer solstice occurs when earth’s tilt and orbit brings the northern hemisphere closest to the sun, and we experience the longest daylight period. The winter solstice, occurring in mid-December, is when the southern hemisphere is closest to the sun, and the northern hemisphere experiences the shortest day of the year. The two in-between periods, vernal (spring) and autumnal (fall) equinox are when the sun’s orbital path crosses the equator, and day and night hours are about equal.

If you would like to learn more about the seasons, consider the following resource links: National Geographic Earth-Sun Relationships; SUNY Earth-Sun Relation; U of I Extension Ecosystems; and U of I Global Temperature Learning.

Turkeys

Thanksgiving dinner is a time to enjoy many delicious foods including turkey, yams, mashed potatoes with gravy, bread stuffing, oyster stuffing, cranberries, corn, hot cider, and pumpkin pie. There are lots of elements to the traditional Thanksgiving Day feast, but one common denominator is the turkey. In 1621, William Bradford, a colonist of the Pilgrims of Plymouth, wrote in his journal about how wild turkey was hunted during that autumn, which many consider led to the first Thanksgiving Day. The dishes served with the main course were all foods that the colonists learned about from the native Americans.

In the late 1850s, Bradford’s journals were reprinted across the United States and caused such interest in celebrating autumn that President Abraham Lincoln declared a national holiday of Thanksgiving starting in 1863. By this time, ham was available for families who did not hunt, but it has never been associated with the original feast since pigs were not kept as livestock until 1623. And the turkey, being a big bird, is able to feed a large number of family members at one sitting.

Struttin by Jamie Velkoverh, USGS, c-2019

Turkeys originated from pheasants ten to fifteen million years ago in Central America. The species slowly spread northwards and out to both coasts making the turkey a true native of North America. It is one of the most ornate game birds in the order Galliformes which includes several other colorful birds such as grouse, pheasant and guineafowl. Turkeys sport a barred feather pattern of green, chocolate brown, and dark reddish orange with a naked ruddy head. Males have a crimson wattle and a long black tuft of feathers hanging from their breast. The colorful plumage is thought to be used mostly for courtship displays, but it also provides surprisingly effective camouflage in tall grasses and woodland edges, their preferred habitat. Legs are well developed and muscled for walking and feet have three toes facing forward and one facing behind, plus a spur off the back of the foot on males, used as a weapon when sparring for partners.

Spending most of their time on the ground, there is no mistaking where turkeys have been foraging for food in a woodland. Walking through an area and scratching the ground with their feet, turkeys search for nuts, berries, fruits, seeds and insects. In autumn, the trail of scratching is more apparent as fallen leaves are piled to one side to find food. Turkeys are difficult to hunt because they are aware of their surroundings at all times. They have excellent eyesight, up to three times better than humans, and acute hearing, able to distinguish calls up to a mile away. On the ground, turkeys are able to run away at 20mph and can fly straight up, level off and hit flight speeds topping 60mph. Game birds throughout North America are not migratory species, but they may move short distances due to weather when searching for available food.

Being a popular species for hunting and eating, turkeys were all but eliminated by 1900. In the 1950s, an extensive effort to reintroduce them into their historic range was successfully undertaken through several large scale captive breeding programs. Further hunting restrictions introduced in the 1960s and 1970s greatly increased populations of all game birds, and turkey populations across the United States rebounded. When hiking in DuPage County, rafters, groups, of turkeys mainly composed of adult males, toms, and adult females, hens, can be observed at many local hot spots including Herrick Lake, Blackwell, Danada, and St. James Farm forest preserves as well as Catigny Gardens. In spring and summer, poults, baby turkeys, jennys, adolescent females, and jakes, adolescent males, will also be out struttin’ their stuff.

Wishing you a wonderful Thanksgiving Holiday filled with your own traditions. Thank you for reading our columns and enjoying nature.

Feederwatch

Birds are flocking to the feeders in my backyard. As soon as the temperatures started to dip, perhaps because day light hours are shortening, the feeders empty in less than a day. Bird watching, as a recreational activity, is considered to be among the top favorites of people around the U.S. We can learn a lot about birds and our backyard habitats from daily observation of the birds in our neighborhoods.

The Cornell Lab of Ornithology is part of Cornell University’s College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, whose mission is “to interpret and conserve the earth’s biological diversity through research, education and citizen science focused on birds.” This non-profit organization, along with Birds Canada, gathers data through citizen science programs. These are opportunities for scientists, students and the general public to participate in collecting data about the birds in their own backyards.

Collected data is compiled and made available to anyone who wants to use it. Conservationists have gained protection for various bird species in serious decline; scientists are learning about migration routes and what resources birds need and use along the way; and population sizes and health can be monitored in near real-time across the entire North American continent. Basic maps, trend graphs and summarized data by state as well as local region are displayed and downloadable. Interactive maps that combine monitoring data with satellite images from NASA are educational and simply fun to watch.

Articles for backyard birders on feeder types, preferred food for specific bird species, keeping a healthy environment, and landscaping to attract birds are waiting for you to peruse. These offer how-to information, including resources, for setting up your own backyard bird feeding and monitoring area. If you want to look outside your own backyard, searching the internet for more projects reveals opportunities for observing and recording data concerning nesting, bird-building collisions, and migration and data for specific families, such as hawks. Birding hotspots in DuPage County include Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Waterfall Glen south of Darien, Cantigny Gardens in Wheaton, Greene Valley Forest Preserve in Naperville.

A specific project that I am involved in is Cornell’s FeederWatch program, a survey of birds visiting my backyard habitat between November and April. Observation is for two consecutive days each week, and data is recorded concerning species identification, how many individual birds are in each sighting, what types of food and feeders are in use, and daily weather conditions. I use my own checklist, shown below, to keep track of my observations and enter the data online on Cornell’s website. If you are interested in joining the 120,000+ citizen scientists for birds, visit the following sites for more information:

Cornell ProjectFeederwatch	Project overview, data collection, history, staff, links to more information
Cornell Home Page	Mission, what we are about, staff, news
eBird	Cornell’s online database of bird observations
Tally Sheet	Sample tally sheet

My Backyard Birds Checklist

Note that there may be other birds that you see in your own backyards especially if you are close to a prairie or forest or any type of habitat different than my own

From Date:_____________	Start Time: ________________	End Time: ___________________
To Date: _______________	Start Time: ________________	End Time: ___________________

General Weather (temp, wind, rainfall/snowfall inches) .

Common	Scientific	Count	Notes
Belted Kingfisher	Megaceryle alcyon
Blue Jay	Cyanocitta cristata
Canada Goose	Branta canadensis
Chickadee, Black-capped	Parus atricapillus
Common Grackle	Quiscalus quiscula
Finch, American Goldfinch	Carduelis tristis
Finch, House	Carpodacus mexicanus
Finch, Purple	Carpodacus purpureus
Junco, Dark-eyed	Junco hyemalis
European Starling	Sturnus vulgaris
Hawk, Cooper’s	Accipiter cooperii
Hawk, Red-tailed	Buteo jamaicensis
Hawk, Sharp-shinned	Accipiter striatus
Mallard	Anas platyrhynchos
Mourning Dove	Zenaida macroura
Northern Cardinal	Cardinalis cardinalis
Nuthatch, Red-breasted	Sitta canadensis
Nuthatch, White-breasted	Sitta carolinensis
Owl, Great Horned	Bubo virginianus
Sparrow, American Tree	Spizella arborea
Sparrow, House	Passer domesticus
Woodpecker, Downy	Picoides pubescens
Woodpecker, Hairy	Picoides villosus
Woodpecker, Red-bellied	Melanerpes carolinus

Other: Behavior interactions (displacement or predation), Eye disease notes

Smoke Gets In Your Lungs, by The Flappers

I pour my hot cinnamon tea with honey into the thermos – it is the last of my “gear” for the day. I drive out to meet with the rest of the crew. There is a definite morning chill as we gather at the parking area and I put on my extra clothing including a full Nomex suit, waterproof boots, and gloves to ward off the chill in my fingers. I place the helmet, face shield, ear protection and burn gloves in the carryall along with loppers and saws. Other crew members will bring along shovels and rakes, and a couple will carry torches and water packs. The crew is finally ready to head out to the burn site!

Headfire by Rob Mattson-Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation, copyright-2016

Prescribed fire is a tool used by stewards and land managers. Many of the ecosystems in our area require periodic fire to remain healthy. Fires help speed up the process of releasing nutrients from dead plant material, returning them to the soil and making them available to new plants. Fire improves habitat for threatened and endangered species by removing invasive and non-native understory plants. Clearing areas promotes the growth of native plants which provide food for animals dependent on these plants. Fire also helps to greatly reduce pest insects and diseases.

Slow backfire creating black by David Hercher-USFS, copyright-2015

Where periodic fire has not occurred or has been suppressed for many years, there is often an accumulation of layers of leaf litter and fallen wood. Unplanned wildfire quickly consumes excessive fuels, resulting in hot, raging fire. When fire occurs more often, less fuel is available for smaller, less damaging burns. Native plants, adapted to a slow-burning fire, are easily killed by hot fires. Reducing fuel loads in areas adjacent to human communities is also desirable to control damage in urban environments.

Dripper laying a line by Lisa McNee-BLM, copyright-2018

The burn boss gathers everyone together, and we all have the equipment for our specific assignments. The dripper will accompany the burn boss, carrying the drip torch and laying down lines of mixed diesel and gas fire to begin burning each section. Flappers, like me, are responsible for seeing that the fire does not cross the section lines. My tool is a shovel or rake or large square piece of heavy rubber on a long handle – a flapper – for stomping out burning foliage. Some of us also carry water backpacks with a manual pump handle and a nozzle on a short hose. Filled with up to 15 gallons of water, these can be quite weighty pieces of gear. There is always the water tank driver. Responsible for placing the tractor driven tank near where the leading flames will try to cross the section boundary, he can spray large amounts of water to catch and kill any big flame as it comes near.

A black zone is established first. On the downwind sides and end of the section, 6-foot wide zones of burned vegetation will be back burned with a line of fire laid out and allowed to burn slowly against the wind until the black zone is ready. Then the flappers will take up their positions, a few in the black zone and the rest along the sides of the section. The dripper will follow the burn boss laying down lines of fire burning blocks of vegetation. As fire gets close to me, I can feel the heat and I try to stay out of the smoke while I smack and rake and spray out the flames to keep the fire contained. The wind shifts suddenly, and tears run down my cheeks as I inhale more smoke than air. As more black zones are established around the section, we will get to the last burn, the fun burn. A line of fire laid at the headwind side roars through the remaining fuel load in the section. The wind lifts out the smoke and pushes the fire sounding like a freight train coming at you before it puffs out in the wind upon hitting the black, with no more fuel available.

Flapper by Josh O’Connor-USFWS, copyright-2004

The crew is back together afterwards, and there are smiles all around. The burn went according to plan, the fire a thrilling memory as the smell of smoky clothes lingers as a reminder. The black area will soon be wet and frozen. Nutrients from the ash of burned plants leech back into the soil and are available in the spring when new vegetation begins to grow. Many invasive species have been killed by the fire or damaged to the point of not being able to survive the cold and freeze, coming soon. My crew members and I will cherish a hot shower, a warm meal and sound sleep tonight.

Squirrels

Excuse me! Your bird feeder is empty! That’s what the squirrels in my backyard tell me every other day. I have several feeders, some year round, and more in the winter months. Squirrels are alert, always wary of their surroundings, yet show very little fear of humans They are presumptuous, eager, intelligent, and fun to observe. Unique adaptations allow some to scurry up and down tree trunks, and others to fly.

Eastern Grey Squirrels, Sciurus carolinensis, seem to be everywhere, running up and down tree trunks, scampering across limbs, leaping from tree to tree, and planning new ways to get into the neighborhood bird feeders. They are active year-round and are diurnal, active early in the morning and late in the afternoon, often resting during the middle of the day, but, even while resting, they must be constantly alert for predators. Squirrels are shades of black and brown fur tipped with gray above with white bellies. When looking up into the trees, the lighter colored underside blends with the sky making it harder to see. For a predator flying overhead, the darker shades of the squirrel’s back blends in with the leaves, twigs and ground colors. At this time of year, activity increases as squirrels cut, drop and bury nuts for the winter. Each nut is buried separately under one to two inches of soil. Squirrels do not have to remember where they buried their food because of their excellent sense of smell. They can detect a buried nut from up to a foot away even through layers of soil. Grey squirrels will find and eat about 85% of their cached food each season.

Eastern Fox Squirrel, *Sciurus niger*, by DonArnold

The Eastern Fox Squirrel, Sciurus niger, is the largest squirrel in northern Illinois. It is similar in coloration to the Grey Squirrel, but with yellow undersides and no silver tipped hairs on its back. Although not considered a social species, several individuals may den together in the winter to maintain warmth. Fox Squirrels prefer winter dens in holes in trees, often using abandoned woodpecker holes. If there are no holes available, they will build a leaf nest with a side entrance hole and line it with grass, leaves, and moss. They also cache nuts for the winter, using tree cavities whenever possible. Fox Squirrels may have four to six active dens at any time, switching between them.

Red Squirrel, *Tamiasciurus hudsonicus*, by Robert Taylor, C-2012

The Red Squirrel, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, sometimes known as Pine Squirrel or Chickaree, is our smallest squirrel, not often seen in DuPage County, which is on the southern edge of its range. Red Squirrels have rust-red to grey coats, brightest on their sides with white bellies. In winter, a black line separates the red from white on the body and carries through the tail with the black band edged in white. They are the most carnivorous of the species inhabiting this area bird eggs and young birds in addition to nuts, berries, and seeds. They cache pine cones for the winter. Red Squirrels also feed on sugar maple and red maple trees, chewing into the xylem under the bark to start a slow flow of sap. As the mixture of glucose and water oozes out, the squirrel will leave the patch to dry. As it leaves the tree, wet sap is about 2% sugar. As the water evaporates, the remaining mixture becomes almost 55% sugar, a high energy food.

Southern Flying Squirrel, *Glaucomys volans*, by Judy Frederick, C-2012

The last of our acrobats, the Southern Flying Squirrel, Glaucomys volans, has a silky coat, brown on the back and white on the belly, with an extra fold of skin between the forelegs and the hindlegs. This skin allows Flying Squirrels to glide from a high trunk to a lower one, traveling up to 80 yards in one leap. Their wide, flat tails are used as rudders to turn or change the angle of descent in mid-air. The tail also acts as an air brake, dropping to slow their descent as the forelegs are raised and the squirrel makes a soft landing. Although active only at night, they immediately move to the other side of the trunk on landing in case there are any predators – owls – following their flight through the trees. Flying Squirrels are agile climbers and gliders, but are clumsy on the ground, so they spend a majority of their time among the trees. They prefer to live in large, mature forested areas where trees are spaced far enough apart to allow gliding without obstacles. Preferred foods include nuts, berries, seeds and bird eggs. These ravenous squirrels may store as many as 15,000 nuts in one season.

Eastern Gray Squirrel heading down, by DonArnold

All squirrels move easily through the trees. They have sharp claws for climbing and hanging onto vertical tree trunks. Muscular legs allow them to jump between branches and from tree to tree. In winter, feet and toes are covered with hair for extra grip on slippery surfaces. Squirrels can go down a tree trunk head first, just as fast as they can go up, due to a unique adaptation that allows these animals to turn their paws 180˚ and provide just as much grip in either direction. When observing squirrels, note their tail movements. Tails are used for balance and communication, flicking movement indicates agitation from danger close by, and the faster the flick, the more dangerous the situation. Squirrels also use calls to communicate. A rapid kuk-kuk-kuk indicates immediate danger. As the danger passes, the call will slow down. Once the danger is gone, calls will stop and tails will be laid comfortably along backs.

Oak-hickory forests cover one fourth of all the forested areas east of the Mississippi River in the United States. Winds carry some seeds long distances, others encased in tasty fruits, will be eaten and dropped far from the plant they grew on. Acorns and nuts are relatively heavy, falling to the ground immediately underneath the parent trees. Squirrels and oaks have a wonderful relationship, where one gets food and shelter, and the other gets its offspring spread across the forest.

As forested areas are overtaken by human development, they are cut up into smaller and smaller islands of habitat. Many squirrels are well adapted to live in urban environments among humans and our dwellings. They can easily switch to different food groups including berries, seeds, fruit, mushrooms and nuts. All of these are plentiful in our gardens and bird feeders. An urban environment can support up to 20 squirrels per acre compared to a forested acre that supports only one to two individuals due to competition for food. Squirrels provide many ecological services from reforestation to providing a source of food for predators, as well as endless entertainment for us!

Spiders

Spiders are omens of good luck, and the bigger they are, the more luck for you. If you see a spider on Halloween, it means that a deceased loved one is watching over you. According to folklore, spiders have mystical powers with their ability to spin both physical and magical webs. The name spider is from “spinder” a reference to its spinning ability. The Greek goddess Arachnea was jealous of her rival, the goddess Athena and challenged her to a silk spinning contest. When Arachnea lost, Athena turned her into a spider destined to spin silk forever. There are more than 600 species of spiders in Illinois with about 60 of those common to northern Illinois. Let’s take a closer look at spiders and their abilities.

Spiders are part of the largest phylum of animals on earth: arthropods, which include crustaceans, insects, myriapods (millipedes and centipedes) and arachnids (spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks). Spiders are characterized by having eight legs and two body parts, the cephalothorax and the abdomen, connected by a narrow portion called the pedicel.

We may characterize the cephalothorax as the head, with the spider’s face in front, mouth at the bottom, and all eight legs attached to its underside. Internally, the cephalothorax contains the venom gland, the brain and the sucking stomach. At the top of the face are six to eight simple eyes arranged in two rows from left to right. Each eye is a single lens, but all can detect color, movement, shape and size. Below the eyes are two vertical jaws lined with teeth and tipped with fangs. The fangs are used to inject both poison to disable and kill a victim and enzymes to break down a victim’s internal tissue to a liquid form. Located below the jaws is another pair of appendages called pedipalps. These are used when holding prey and feeding and are used in mating on fully grown adult males.

The abdomen contains all remaining organs including heart, intestines, book lungs and trachea, ovaries and silk glands. The abdomen may be long and thin or large and bulbous and is often colorfully marked. These distinctive colorings are useful for species identification. At the very back of the abdomen are three pairs of spinnerets. Each one attaches to an internal silk producing gland. Silk is a liquid mixture of proteins, which when exposed to air, dries immediately to a threadlike, elastic material. It can be stretched up to three times its original length, and the tensile strength is greater than that of solid bone. Each gland may produce a different type of silk. The spider uses silk, both sticky and non-sticky strands, to form webs. A web may be designed as a sheet, a funnel, a circular orb or in an irregular jumble of strands. Other uses for silk are for wrapping prey for later consumption, creating the outer covering of an egg sac, or to create a shelter. Silk is used in two ways for movement. One is to create a dragline, which a spider attaches to an anchor point, such as a tree limb or house eave, and uses it to lower themselves. The second movement, used by immature spiders to leave home, is called a balloon string. The young spider points its abdomen skywards and shoots out a set of three threads in a triangle pattern designed to catch the wind and fly them to new territory. Ballooning usually takes the spider several inches or feet to the next branch, but it has been known to transport a spider over many miles. The last use is to create a sperm web, which I will discuss below. Silk is reusable, and all spiders consume their webs after each use, returning the proteins to liquid form available to be re-used within minutes.

All spiders are predators and hunt for food. Favorite foods include other arthropods as well as other spiders. Adult females are considerably larger in size than adult males who must impregnate the female without getting eaten. When males reach sexual maturity, the ends of their pedipalps enlarge to form a sperm holding chamber. A sperm web is formed from silk and sperm is laid on this web to be taken up into the pedipalps where it is stored until needed. To avoid being eaten, males will court a female to clearly establish his intentions. For species with poor eyesight, the male will walk onto a female’s web using an intricate pattern of vibrations that indicates he is not prey. For species with good eyesight, the male will get in front of the female and perform a courtship dance or combination of poses.

Crab Spider in Yellow by Judy Gallagher, c-2016

Once the female accepts the male, his sperm must be deposited from each pedipalp into the epigynum, an opening on the bottom of her abdomen leading to the ovaries. He will climb on the back of her abdomen, reach around and deposit sperm from both pedipalps and leave. Males may mate with more than one partner, but most will die shortly after mating. Eggs are produced and fertilized during the summer, then deposited in an egg sac. The egg sac may be carried around by the female or attached to the edge of her web. Egg sacs may contain from one to several hundred eggs. Eggs will hatch within a few weeks, depending on the species. Spiders are born blind but will grow functioning eyes within several days of hatching. The young stay close to the egg sac to use it for nourishment until they can see and begin to hunt for themselves. The young will molt from four to twelve times, growing functional eye tissue, fangs and spinnerets during subsequent molts. Any lost body parts, such as a leg, can also be regrown during a molt, however once they are adults, they will never molt again. The molting process normally takes several months and many species will spend their first winter between molts, having their final molt during spring of the following year.

Following the first or second molt, juveniles are able to feed themselves and will begin to hunt on their own. As predators, they quickly find that other spiders make good meals, and cannibalism in large hatches is a reality. In general, spiders are either active hunters, typically found in species with good eyesight, or web weavers, typically those species with poorer eyesight. For web weavers, all prey is caught in a web. Prey thrashes about getting more entangled until the prey tires. Spiders can tell from the vibrations at which point they can safely move in and using their fangs, inject venom to further subdue and kill the victim. At the same time, enzymes are also injected to break down internal tissues into liquid form. Active hunters will lie in wait or chase down prey. Many active hunters use coloration to blend in with flowers and other vegetation while hunting. Some species, including crab spiders in our area, can change their body colors to match different flower colors. Spiders eat all meals in a liquid state and have powerful stomach muscles that pull all liquids into their stomach.

Crab Spider in White by Michael Figiel, c-2016

All spiders produce venom. In northern Illinois, there are only two species that may pose a serious threat to humans. They are the Brown Recluse, Loxosceles reclusa and the Northern Widow, Latrodectus variolus. Both of these species are native to areas farther south and are not commonly found in northern Illinois. It is thought that they only occur when brought into an individual home from elsewhere. Spiders, in general, including these two species, are not known to bite unless provoked. Most spiders live an average of one to two years, although some species in the tropics may live up to 20 years. Their most effective predators are found among wasps. Two wasp families will repeatedly sting the spider until it is paralyzed, then drag it off to their nests. Instead of eating the spider, the wasps lay an egg on the spider’s abdomen, and when the egg hatches, the larva will feed on the still living spider until it dies and the wasp pupates. Other predators include fish, frogs, toads, salamanders and other spiders. Spiders are one of our gardens most beneficial inhabitants, eating many of the garden’s numerous flower and vegetable pests.

Winter is the time of least activity, but warmer days or when the sun is providing radiant warmth, you can observe spiders being active even on top of the snow. Most overwinter in leaf litter, under bark or in hollow logs or crevices. If they decide to move inside with you and you prefer they didn’t, they can easily be captured with a paper cup and a lid (3×5 cards work well) and released outdoors. However, they will do a good job patrolling insect pests, including aphids on indoor plants, as well. There are many good books and websites to get more information. A couple of my favorites include “Good Garden Bugs” by Mary M. Gardiner, Ph.D.; “Spiders of the North Woods” by Larry Weber, part of the North Woods Naturalist Series; and a video of ballooning on the Science Magazine website found at watch-ballooning-spider-take-flight.

Hibernation

Days are getting shorter and temperatures are starting to cool. We are well into autumn, and it is time for animals to prepare for winter when it will become difficult for them to keep warm and find food. There are several approaches to living through winter: growing thicker fur coats, travelling south to follow the quickly retreating warmer temperatures, and sleeping in until warmer, sunlit mornings prevail. Animals that “sleep-in” are actually going through a period of dormancy. It can last from a few weeks to several months, but there are some general conditions that must be met. Almost all species will need a home that consistently stays above freezing, and each animal must have enough energy to last through the dormancy period. There are four categories of dormancy including hibernation, torpor, brumation, and diapause. Let’s take a look at these methods and some species that use each.

Hibernation is a process that involves a significantly lower body temperature, and decreased heart, respiration, and metabolic rates. Species that are true hibernators can live for long periods of time with very low energy use. Woodchucks, also known as groundhogs, hibernate up to five months each year in the northern areas of the eastern U.S. They have a normal heartbeat of 80 beats per minute which is reduced to about 5 beats per minute; their normal body temperature is reduced from 98°F to 38°F; and their breathing rate goes from 16 times per minute to twice a minute. The woodchuck also exhibits reductions in other growth areas including teeth, which normally grow 1/16″ weekly and are kept under control by the grinding action when they eat.

Eatern Chipmunk, *Tamias striatus*, by DonArnold, c-1999

Species are either obligate or facultative hibernators depending on when they enter a period of dormancy. Obligate hibernators use seasonal cues. When days start to shorten, indicating a change in season, these species will enter hibernation regardless of outside temperatures or amount of available food. Facultative hibernators use environmental cues. When it becomes too cold or food starts to become scarce, these species will enter hibernation to conserve on their energy use. All species that spend time in hibernation eat larger amounts of food in autumn to build up brown fat. These fat reserves provide the quick energy needed for activities upon awakening.

Species in hibernation may waken occasionally. Animals have been observed waking to use a toilet area and/or to nibble on cached food supplies. Chipmunks can be observed with fat cheeks in autumn, busily creating food caches located in burrows found under the frost line in the same area where their summer nest is located. Although this reason for waking is not well understood, one theory is that waking may stimulate energy use followed by the ability to sustain a longer sleep period. Another theory postulates that periodic eating of small amounts of food sustains the immune response system.

Torpor is a similar process that involves the same physical modifications as hibernation, but in smaller quantities. Body temperatures and heart rates will be lower by ten to fifteen percent, and animals using this strategy will wake more often, engaging in activities several times throughout the cold period. Skunks enter their dens as daytime temperatures sink below freezing, and their heart and respiration rates slow. Their sleep may last from a few days to a few weeks. They will leave the den to forage for food in between these naps. Many birds enter torpor on a daily basis, at night or on very cold days. Their decreased physiological activity allows them to conserve body fat overnight so it is available for quick energy production the following morning to continue daily foraging activities. On cold nights, black-capped chickadees can maintain body temperatures twelve degrees lower than normal. This allows the body to use 30% less stored fat.

Brumation is the term used for torpor in ectotherms. Ectotherms obtain their body heat from the environment and include reptiles, amphibians and fish. Most of these species must live where the temperatures always stay above freezing. Many frogs and turtles bury themselves in mud at the bottoms of ponds, or dig holes deep into the ground, well below the frostline. Their breathing and heart rate slow and they can get oxygen from air trapped in the cavity or surrounding mud. Snakes will often den together in groups of a dozen to several hundred individuals in a den below the frostline. The wood frog is an exception because it can tolerate freezing temperatures. A chemical contained in each cell in its body acts as antifreeze to protect the cell from damage that could be incurred if solid ice should form inside the body. Thirty five to forty five percent of the body may freeze, stopping the heart and respiration, but it will thaw with warming temperatures. The wood frog may freeze and thaw several times in one season. All ectotherms may wake on warmer days in mid-winter and leave their dens to find water and nutrients.

Yellow-Jacket Wasp by Dog-WalkDigital, c-2011

In late autumn, before temperatures turn cold, some insect species enter diapause, a period of suspended development. Some spend winter here in underground burrows, under bark or leaf litter, or in holes drilled into woody plants. Many have the same cellular chemistry as wood frogs, with each cell having a chemical antifreeze to prevent damage from ice formation. For bumblebees and yellow jacket wasps, only the new queens survive, spending the winter in an underground burrow until spring. Bees spend the longest time in any form of hibernation, often five to six months underground.

Strategies to survive cold periods are important as parts of the normal annual cycle. Zoos attempt to provide habitat that can accommodate these needs. Cold-adapted animals in northern climates remain outdoors for winter as part of a healthy life cycle. The risks involved with cold periods include the need to meet nutrient demands by storing fat or food caches, having energy in reserve to forage when warm weather arrives, and having enough water to hydrate throughout the cold period. Climate change and warm days in the middle of winter are another threat that is not easily quantifiable. Animals may wake and start to move about during warming episodes, but may not find any food available, wasting energy and water.

We can help by following some simple guidelines: leave animals and habitats undisturbed during cold months; offer food sources for animals during warmer periods (i.e. extra seed if temperatures get above freezing); learn more about the habitats in your neighborhood to protect them from disturbance and fragmentation and learn more about climate change and the negative effects caused by it. Here are a few books you may find interesting: “Animals That Hibernate”, a children’s pictorial by Larry Dane Brimner; “Do Not Disturb”, a children’s reader by Margery Facklam; “Winter World” by Heinrich Bernd.

Backyard Birds

Our backyard bird feeders have seen a big jump in activity over the past two to three weeks, and I am filling the feeders at least once a day. We have three feeders out all year: include mixed nuts, fruits & seeds, black oil sunflower seeds, and thistle. In winter, we add a fourth feeder with a variety of suet types. There is also a birdbath, heated in winter, in addition to the small pond behind our house. The heated birdbath guarantees fresh water all year, even when the pond freezes. We also have plenty of cover for the feeders with two large Austrian pine trees and a small multi-stem Amelanchier tree. There are plenty of other bushes and trees on neighboring properties, all within 50-70 yards of our feeders. Our garden plants provide berries and seeds from sunflowers, coneflowers, Amelanchier tree and honeysuckle vine.

Interconnected backyard habitat by DonArnold-c

The bird species we see change from season to season as summertime birds migrate south at this time of year and winter birds move into the area to take their places. Food sources change, winter shelter requirements are different, and water availability becomes much more important when freezing temperatures arrive. Within the last few weeks, I have noticed that many of the summer resident birds have left the area including the house wren, chipping sparrow, killdeer, ruby-throated hummingbird, green heron and great egret. A few may still be sticking around until it gets really cold, but most individuals have already headed south to follow the warmer temperatures.

Year-round residents include red-bellied woodpecker, house finch, mourning dove, black-capped chickadee, white-breasted nuthatch, northern cardinal and American goldfinch. But, we are already starting to see some winter only residents at our feeders including dark-eyed junco and purple finch. These two species spend their breeding season farther north, but return to this area during winter as they move around in search of food. All of the birds visiting our backyard in the winter will eat seeds, although some of the insect foragers are still checking out our trees and garden soils. The red-bellied woodpecker and white-breasted nuthatch scurry over the trunk and limbs of our two Austrian Pines checking out all of the crevices and nubs and knobs. Goldfinches primarily eat thistle seed, but can also be observed on many coneflowers in the garden. The mixed nuts and fruit blend attracts the white-breasted nuthatch, the red-breasted nuthatch, and the red-bellied woodpecker. I have observed all of the species, at one time or another, eating black oil sunflower seeds. Most species are comfortable with the perches available on the different feeders, although the mourning dove is mainly a ground feeder, scavenging for dropped seed along with squirrels and ducks and the occasional skunk.

We tend to think that birds live in nests. However, nesting is primarily a breeding season activity, encompassing early spring to mid-summer in our area. Many of the birds in our backyards spend winter periods as close to food sources as possible. Habitat in our area includes several distinct micro-environments offering differing levels of protection and accessibility. Medium sized shrubbery, thick with many small stems and twigs, is used by sparrows, finches and other small birds. Evergreen trees and bushes provide cover for cardinals and mourning doves. Large oak, linden and maple trees are favored by woodpeckers and nuthatches. Areas of tall, thick grasses may be used by all species during daytime foraging activities. All of these habitats provide shelter from wind, cold and predators.

Water availability is another prime concern for over-wintering species. Birds need water every day to maintain a healthy metabolism to keep their body temperature and hydration level normal. They use water in the process of preening their feathers to maintain an outer covering that is waterproof and provides good insulation for their bodies. They will travel long distances to find open water. If none can be found, they may resort to eating snow, if that is available. We provide a heated birdbath which I fill at least once a day and clean every two to three days. Dozens of birds visit each day and it can be one of the highlights of bird observation in our own backyards. Providing food, water and shelter for the birds in our neighborhoods can provide a daily dose of rich and rewarding fun for your family.

If you are looking for ways to get further involved, consider looking into all of the information and citizen science opportunities at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Their Project Feederwatch (click on name to link to URL) offers a fun way to observe and report on action at your own backyard bird feeders.